Indo-European Roots , AaBbCcaaa

||_ -a- (Oldest form *-ea₂~, colored to *-aa₇-, contracted to *-d-. Also appears as *-a, from zero-grade *-a₂, espe­cially in composite forms *-yn and *-wa.) Suffix forming abstract or collective nouns, and marking the feminine gender in most adjectives ending in *-o-. It ultimately appears in the following English suffixes:

a.    -CY, from Latin -tia, abstract suffix (< *-ti-d; *-ti-, abstract suffix, see -ti-); b. (i) -ery, -y², from Latin -ia, abstract suffix; (ii) -ia¹, from Greek -id, abstract suffix. Both (i) and (ii) from Indo-European com­pound abstract suffix *-ia-; C. -ess, from Greek -issa, feminine suffix (not productive until Late Greek), from composite suffix *-ikya. [Not in Pokorny.]

||_ ab(e)l- Apple. 1. apple, from Old English aeppel. 2. dapple-gray, from Old Norse *apall, apple (in apalgrar, dapple-gray). Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *ap(a)laz. [Pokorny abel- 1.]

||_ ad- To, near, at. 1a. at¹;atone, twit, from Old English ret, near, by, at; b. ado, from Old Norse at. Both a and b from Germanic *at. 2. ad-, -ad; adjuvant, aid, amount, paramount, from Latin ad, ad-, to, toward.

3.    Celtic *ad-, to, at, in compounds (see bher-¹, sed-¹). [Pokorny 1. ad- 3.]

||_ ag-¹ To drive, draw, move. (Oldest form *a,ag-.) 1. ACT, ACTIVE, ACTOR, ACTUAL, ACTUARY, ACTUATE, AGEN­DUM, AGENT, AGILE, AGITATE; ALLEGE, AMBAGE, AMBIGU­OUS, ASSAY, CACHE, COAGULUM, COGENT, ESSAY, EXACT, EXACTA, EXAMINE, EXIGENT, EXIGUOUS, FUMIGATE, FUSTI­GATE, INTRANSIGENT, LEVIGATE, LITIGATE, NAVIGATE, OB­JURGATE, PRODIGALITY, REDACT, RETROACTIVE, SQUAT, transact, variegate, from Latin agere, to do, act, drive, conduct, lead, weigh. 2. -agogue, agony; ana­goge, ANTAGONIZE, CHORAGUS, DEMAGOGUE, EPACT, GLUCAGON, HYPNAGOGIC, MYSTAGOGUE, PEDAGOGUE, PROTAGONIST, STRATAGEM, SYNAGOGUE, from Greek agein, to drive, lead, weigh. 3. Suffixed form *ag-to~. ambassador, embassage, embassy, from Latin ambac- tus, servant, from Celtic *amb(i)-ag-to-, “one who goes around” {*ambi, around; see ambhi). 4. Suf­fixed form *ag-ti-, whence adjective *ag-ty-o-, “weighty.” axiom; axiology, chronaxie, from Greek axios, worth, worthy, of like value, weighing as much. 5. Possibly suffixed form *ag-ro-, driving, pursuing, grabbing, pellagra, podagra, from Greek agra, a seizing. 6. O-grade suffixed form *og-mo~, furrow, track, metaphorically “incised line.” ogham, from Old Irish Ogma (from Celtic *Ogmios), name of a Celtic god and traditional inventor of the ogham al­phabet. [Pokorny ag- 4.] See also derivative agro-.

||_ ag-² To speak. (Oldest form *a₂eg-, colored to *a₂ag-.) Suffixed zero-grade form *og-yo~. 1. adage, from Latin adagium, saying, proverb, “a speaking to” {ad-, to; see ad-). 2. prodigy, from Latin prodigium, a por­tent, “a foretelling” {prod-, variant of pro-, before; see per¹). [Pokorny eg- 290.]

||_ ag-es- Fault, guilt, ache, from Old English acan, to ache (perhaps < “to cause mental pain”). [Pokorny agos- 8.]

||_ agh-¹ To be depressed, be afraid. 1. Suffixed form *agh-lo-. ail, from Old English eglan, eglian, to trou­ble, afflict. 2. Suffixed form *agh-es~. awe, from Old Norse agi, fright, ultimately from Germanic *agiz-. [Pokorny agh- 7.]

||_ agh-² A day (considered as a span of time). (Oldest form *agh-.) 1. day; daisy, today, from Old English dreg, day. 2. Landtag, from Old High German tag, day. 3. dawn, from Old English denominative dagian, to dawn. 1-3 all from Germanic *dagaz (with initial d- of obscure origin), day. [Pokorny agher- 7.]

||_ agro- Field. (Oldest form *3_{agro-; probably originally a derivative of *3_{ag~, to drive [“place where cattle are driven”]; see ag-¹.) 1. acre, from Old English cecer, field, acre, from Germanic *akraz. 2. agrarian;agri­culture, peregrine, pilgrim, from Latin ager (geni­tive agri), earlier "agros, district, property, field. 3. agria, agro-; agrostology, onager, stavesacre, from Greek agros, field, and agrios, wild. [In Pokorny < 4.]

||_ agw(e)sT- Ax. AX¹, from Old English aex, ax, from Germanic *akusjo~. [Pokorny agu(e)si 9.]

||_ ag^wh-no- Lamb. 1. yean, from Old English eanian, to bring forth young, from Germanic *aundn, de­nominative from *aunaz, lamb. 2. Agnus Dei, from Latin agnus, lamb. [Pokorny ag^h-no-s 9.]

||_ ai-¹ To give, allot. 1. Suffixed extended form *ai-t-yd-. etiology, from Greek aitid, cause, responsibility. 2. Suffixed form *ai-ta-. diet', from Greek diaitan, to treat. [Pokorny 3. ai- 10.]

||_ ai-² To burn. (Oldest form *a₂e/-, colored to *a₂az-.)

I.    Basic form *az-. 1. Suffixed form "ai-mo-. ember, from Old English demerge, ember, from Ger­manic compound *aim-uzjon-, ashes, from *aima-, ashes (*uzjo, to burn; see eus-). 2. Probably suffixed form *ai-lo-. anneal, from Old English al, fire, from Germanic *ail- (though this has also been taken from *aidh-lo- with irregular loss of dental, from extended form *aidh- in II below).

II.    Extended form *ai-dh-. 1. Suffixed form *aidh-sto-. oast, from Old English ast, kiln, from Germanic *aistaz. 2. Suffixed form *aidh-t~. a. Fur­ther suffixed form *aidh-t-o~. estival, estivate, from Latin aestas (syncopated from *aestotas), heat, sum­mer; b. further suffixed form *aidh-t-u~. estuary, from Latin aestus, heat, swell, surge, tide. 3. Suffixed form *aidh-i-. aedile;edifice, edify, mazaedium, from Latin aedes, building, house (< “hearth”). 4. Suffixed form "aidh-er-. Aether, ether, from Greek aither, air. 5. Suffixed form *aidh-na~. Etna, from Latin Aetna, borrowed from a form *aith-nd (“the fiery one”) in an indigenous language of Sicily. [Pokorny ai-dh- 11.]

||_ aig- Goat. (Oldest form *aig-.) aegis, from Greek aigis, goatskin (emblem of Athena), from aix, goat. [Pokorny aig-, 3. aig- 13.]

||_ aik-¹ To be master of, possess. (Oldest form *a₂eik~, colored to *o₂aik-.) 1. ought¹, owe, from Old English agan, to possess, from Germanic *aigan, to possess. 2. own, from Old English agen, one’s own, from Ger­manic participial form *aigana~, possessed, owned. 3. fraught, freight, from Middle Low German and

Middle Dutch vrecht, vracht, “earnings,” hire for a ship, freight, from Germanic prefixed form *fra-aihtiz, absolute possession, property (*fra-, in­tensive prefix; see per¹). 4. Reduplicated zero-grade (perfect) form *ae-az7c-, remade to *az-azT- (> *ik-). Ganesh, from Sanskrit tste, he rules over. [Pokorny eik- 298.]           "

||_ aik-² A spit. (Oldest form *aik~.) Suffixed form *aik-sma-. aechmea, from Greek aikhme, a spit. [Pokorny aik- 15.]

||_ aim- Copy. (Oldest form *a₂ezm-, colored to *a₂uzzrz-.) 1. Suffixed full-grade form *aim-olo-. emulate, emu­lous, from Latin aemulus, emulous. 2. Zero-grade form *dim-. a. imitate;inimitable, from Latin imi­tare, to imitate, from suffixed form *im-eto-; b. image, imago, imagine, from Latin imago, image. [Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite himma-, ritual sub­stitute.]

||_ a is- To wish, desire. (Oldest form *a₂ezs-, colored to *a₂i?zs-.) Suffixed form *ais-sk-. ask, from Old English ascian, acsian, to ask, seek, from Germanic *aiskdn. [Pokorny 1. ais- 16.]

||_ aiw- Also ayu-. Vital force, life, long life, eternity; also “endowed with the acme of vital force, young.” (Oldest forms *a₂ezw-, *a₂ey«-, colored to *a₂azw-, *a₂uyzz-.) 1a. NO¹, from Old English a, ever; b. aught¹, from Old English awiht, auht, anything, “ever a creature”; C. ever;every, never, from Old English ¿e/re (second element obscure), ever; d. aye²; nay, from Old Norse ei, ever, a, C, and d all from ex­tended Germanic form *aiwi; b from Germanic *azwz + *wihti, “ever a thing, anything” (SvzTzfz-, thing; see wekti-). 2a. Suffixed form *aiw-o-. coeval, longev­ity, medieval, primeval, from Latin aevum, age, eter­nity; b. further suffixed form *aiwo-ta(ti)-. age; co- etaneous, from Latin aetas (stem aetati-), age; C. further suffixed form *aiwo-t-erno-. eternal, eterne, eternity; sempiternal, from Latin aeternus, eternal. 3. Suffixed form *aiw-en-. eon, from Greek aion, age, vital force. 4. Zero-grade form *yu- (earlier *ayzz-) in compound *dyu-g^wis-es~, “having a vigorous life” (*g^M'za-es-, life; see g^weia-¹). hygiene, from Greek hugies, healthy. 5. O-grade form *oyu- (earlier *aoyzz-). a. utopia, from Greek ou, not, variant of ouk, probably from a pre-Greek phrase *(ne) oyu (k^wid), “(not on your) life” (*zze, not, and *k^wid, in­definite pronoun used as emphasizing particle; see ne and k^wo-); b. Ayurveda, from Sanskrit ayuh, life, health, from suffixed form *oyiz-s-. [Pokorny aiu- 17.] See also derivative yeu-.

Language and Culture Note Most of the derivatives of the root aiw- have to do with its pri­mary meaning “vital force, life everlasting, eternity.” Thus for example Sanskrit has a noun, ayu, with exactly that meaning, which goes back to an Indo-European noun *oyu, “life everlasting”; and the zero-grade of this noun, *yu~, could form an adjec­tive, *yu-aon-, “having life force, youthful,” that is the source of Latin iuvenis and English young (see yeu-). However, the direct Greek descendant of *oyu is very unexpected—the conjunction ouk(i) or ou, “not” (a word ultimately showing up in English utopia). To understand how a word for “life everlasting” came to mean “not,” one must imagine a pre-Greek colloquial phrase *ne oyu k^wid, meaning roughly “not on your life, not ever” (with *ne, “not,” and *k^wid, an intensi­fying particle). Essentially, *oyu k^wid just strength­ened the force of the negative *ne. In the histories of many languages, words that are used to strengthen negative expressions often come to be understood as having negative force themselves; and when this hap­pens, the original negative word may be dropped as superfluous. This is precisely what happened with *rze oyu k^wid: the literal meaning of the phrase *oytz k^wid was lost and it was reinterpreted as simply meaning

“not.” The was then dropped, and after various sound changes had run their course in the prehistory of Greek, *oyu k^wid became ouk(i) or ou. • In modern French, the word pas “not” has a very similar history: it originated in the phrase ne ... pas, which once meant “not a step,” that is, “not at all,” with pas strengthening the negative word ne. Eventually pas became interpreted as a negative itself, as in the phrase pas mal, “not bad.”

||_ ak- Sharp. (Oldest form *a₂ek-, colored to *d₂ak-.) 1. Suffixed form *ak-yd-. a. edge;selvage, from Old English ecg, sharp side, from Germanic *agjd; b. egg², from Old Norse eggja, to incite, goad, from Germanic *agjan. 2. Suffixed form *ak-u~. a. ear², from Old English aehher, ear, spike, ear of grain, from Germanic *ahuz-; b. acicula, acuity, aculeate, acumen, acu­puncture, ACUTE, AGLET, AGUE, EGLANTINE, from Latin acus, needle; C. acerose, from Latin acus, chaff. 3. Suffixed form *ak-z-. acidanthera, from Greek akis, needle. 4. Suffixed form *ak-men-, stone, sharp stone used as a tool, with metathetic variant *ka-men~, with variants: a. *ka-mer-. hammer, from Old English hamor, hammer, from Germanic *hamaraz; b. *ke-men- (probable variant), heaven, from Old Eng­lish heofon, hefn, heaven, from Germanic *hibin-, “the stony vault of heaven,” dissimilated form of *himin-. 5. Suffixed form *ak-ona-, independently created in: a. awn, from Old Norse ogn, ear of grain, and Old English agen, ear of grain, from Germanic *agand; and b. paragon, from Greek akone, whet­stone. 6. Suffixed lengthened form *ak-ri-. aceratf., ACRID, ACRIMONY, EAGER¹; CARVACROL, VINEGAR, from Latin acer, sharp, bitter. 7. Suffixed form *ak-ri- bhwo-. acerbic, exacerbate, from Latin acerbus, bit­ter, sharp, tart. 8. Suffixed (stative) form *ak-e-. acid, from Latin acere, to, be sharp. 9. Suffixed form *ak-eto-. acetabulum, acetic, acetum; ester, from Latin acetum, vinegar. 10. Suffixed form *ak-ma-. acme, acne, from Greek akme, point. 11. Suffixed form *ak-ro-. agro-; acrobat, acromion, from Greek akros, topmost. 12. O-grade form *ok- (from earlier *aofc-) in suffixed form *ok-ri-. mediocre, from Latin ocris, rugged mountain. 13. Suffixed o-grade form *ok-SU-. AMPHIOXUS, OXALIS, OXYGEN, OXYTONE, OX­YURIASIS, paroxysm, from Greek oxus, sharp, sour. [Pokorny 2. ak - 18, 3. kem- 556.]

||_ aks- Axis. (Oldest form *aks-.) 1. Suffixed form *aks-lo-. axle, from Old Norse oxull, axle, from Ger­manic *ahsulaz. 2. Suffixed form *aks-i~. a. axis, from Latin axis, axle, pivot; b. axilla, from Latin ax­illa, armpit (< “axis point of the arm and shoulder”). 3. Suffixed form *aks-la. aileron, aisle, ala, alar, alary, alate, alula; aliform, from Latin ala (< tax- la), wing, upper arm (see axilla in 2. b. for semantic transition). 4. Suffixed form *aks-on~. axon, ax- oneme; axoplasm, from Greek axon, axis. [In Pokorny ug- 4.]

||_ ak^w-a- Water. 1a. ait;island, from Old English tg, teg, island; b. Orkney Islands, from Old Norse Orkney- jar, “seal islands” (orkn, seal), from Old Norse ey, island (also in other placenames in -ey such as Guern­sey, Jersey); c. Scandinavia, from Latin Scandinavia, name of a large island in northern Europe, probably from Germanic compound *Skandinaujd, “Scandia or Scandinavia island.” a-C all from Germanic *uzz;o, “thing on the water,” from *ugw/o. 2. Eton, from Old English *Eatun (> early Middle English Eitun), “town on the river (Thames),” from ea, water, river, from Germanic *a/zwo. 3. aqua, aquarelle, aquarium, AQUATIC, AQUI-, EWER, GOUACHE; AQUAMARINE, AQUA­TINT, AQUAVIT, AQUEDUCT, sewer¹, from Latin aqua, water. [Pokorny ak*a- 23.]

||_ al-¹ Beyond. (Oldest form probably *a₂e/-, colored to *a₂fl/-.) 1. O-grade form *<?/- (earlier *a₂o/-), “be-

yond.” a. Compound forms *o/-se-, *ol-so- (*so-, pro­nominal stem;see SO-). alarm, alert, alfresco, alli­gator, El Niño, hoopla, lagniappe, langue d’oïl, lariat, voilà, from Latin ille (feminine ilia, neuter il- lud), “yonder,” that, from Archaic Latin ollus; b. suf­fixed forms *ol-s, *ol-tero-. outré, ulterior, ulti­mate, ultra-, utterance², from Latin uls, * alter, ultra, beyond. 2. Suffixed form *al-tero-, “other of two.” a. alter, altercate, alternate, altruism; sub­altern, from Latin alter, other, other of two; b. adul­terate, adulterine, adultery, from Latin adulterare, to commit adultery with, pollute, probably from the phrase ad alterum, “(approaching) another (unlaw­fully)” (ad, to; see ad-); C. variant suffixed form *an-tero-, “other (of two).” other, from Old English other, from Germanic *anthara-. 3. Suffixed form *al-eno-. Aranyaka, from Sanskrit arana-, foreign. 4. Extended form *alyo~, “other of more than two.” a. (i) else;eldritch, from Old English el-, elles, else, otherwise, from Germanic *aljaz (with adverbial suf­fix); (ii) Alsace, Alsatia, from Old High German *Ali-sâzzo, Eli-sâzzo, “inhabitant of the other (bank of the Rhine)” (> Medieval Latin Alisatia, Alsatia > French Alsace), from Germanic *alja-, *ali-, other (Old High German -sdzzo, “one who sits,” inhabitant; see sed-¹); b. alias, alien; alibi, aliquot, hidalgo, from Latin alius, other of more than two; C. allo-; ALLEGORY, ALLELOMORPH, ALLELOPATHY, MORPHALLAXIS, parallax, parallel, TROPHALLAXis, from Greek alios, other. [Pokorny 1. al- 24, 2. an 37.]

||_ al-² To wander. 1. Compound *ambh(i)-al-a- (see am- bhi). 2. exile, from Latin exsul, exul, wanderer, exile (ex-, out; see eghs). [Pokorny 3. al- 27.]

||_ al-³ To grow, nourish.

I. Suffixed (participial) form *al-to-, “grown.” 1a. alderman, old, from Old English eald, aid, old; b. Eldred (personal name), from Old English Ealdrëd, “old in counsel” (-red, from ræd, counsel; see rê-); C. elder¹, from Old English (comparative) ieldra, eldra, older, elder; d. eldest, from Old English (superlative) ieldesta, eldesta, eldest; e. Germanic compound *wer-ald-, “age of man” (see wï-ro-). a-e all from Germanic *alda~. 2. alt, alto, haughty, hawser; al­timeter, altiplano, altitude, altocumulus, al­ TOSTRATUS, ENHANCE, EXALT, HAUTBOY, from Latin altus, high (“grown tall”), deep.

II. Suffixed form *al-mo-. alma mater, from Latin almus, nurturing, nourishing.

III. Suffixed form *al-o~. adolescent, adult, ali­ble, ALIMENT, ALIMONY, ALTRICIAL, ALUMNUS;COALESCE, from Latin alere, to nourish, and alumnus, fosterling, step-child, originally a participle of alere (“being nourished,” < *al-o-mno-).

IV. Suffixed (causative) form *ol-eye~. abolish, from Latin abolëre, to retard the growth of, abolish (ab-, from; see apo-).

V. Compound form *pro-al- (pro-, forth; see per¹). PROLETARIAN, PROLIFEROUS, PROLIFIC, from Latin proles, offspring.

VI. Extended form *aldh-. althea, from Greek al­thein, althainein, to get well. [Pokorny 2. al- 26.]

||_ al-⁴ To grind, mill. Suffixed form *al-euro-. aleurone, from Greek aleuron, meal, flour. [Pokorny 5. al- 28.]

if meaning “white ghostly apparition.” a. elf, from Old English ælf, elf, also in such personal names as: (i) Alfred, from Old English Ælf ræd, “elf counsel” (ræd, counsel; see re-); (ii) Oliver, from Old English

Allfhere, “elf army” (here, army;see koro-); b. oaf, from Old Norse alfr, elf; c. (i) Aubrey (personal name), from Old High German Alberich (> French Auberi), “ruler of elves” (-rih, -rich, ruler; see reg-¹); (ii) Oberon, from Old French Auberon, from a source akin to Old High German Alberich. Both (i) and (ii) from Old High German *alb, elf. 2. elfin, from Old English -elfen, elf, possibly from Germanic *albinjd. 3. ABELE, ALB, ALBEDO, ALBESCENT, ALBINO, ALBITE, album, albumen, aubade, auburn; daub, from Latin albus, white. [Pokorny albho- 30.]

||_ alg^wh- To earn, be worth. Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Hittite root. (Oldest form *o₂elg^wh-, colored to *o₂alg^wh-.) 1. arhat, from Sanskrit arhati, he is wor­thy. 2. Alpheus (river name), from Greek Alpheus, from alphanein, to yield a return. [Pokorny algvh- 32.]

manic *aluth-. [Pokorny alu- 33.]

amah, from Medieval Latin amma, mother. 2. Suf­fixed form *am-os-. amoretto, amour; enamor, par­amour, from Latin amor, love. 3. Suffixed form *am-a~. amateur, amative, amatory; inamorata, from Latin amare, to love. 4. amicable, amigo, amity; enemy, inimical, from Latin amicus, friend. 5. aunt, from Latin amita, aunt. [In Pokorny am(m)a 36.]

||_ ambhi Also rnbhi. Around. Probably derived from *ant-bhi, “from both sides” (see ant-). 1. Reduced form *bhi. a. by¹;abaft, but, from Old English bi, bi, be, by; b. be-, from Old English be-, on all sides, be-, also intensive prefix; C. beleaguer, from Middle Dutch bie, by; d. bivouac, from Old High German bi, by, at. a-d all from Germanic *bi, *bi- (intensive pre­fix). 2a. Ember Day, from Old English ymbe, around;

b. ombudsman, from Old Norse um(b), about, around; C. umlaut, from Old High German umbi, around. a-C all from Germanic *umbi. 3a. ambi-, from Latin ambi-, around, about; b. alley¹, al­ley-oop, ambulance, ambulate, andante, funambu­list, perambulate, preamble, from Latin ambulare, to go about, walk (*ambh(i)-al-a-;*-al-, to wander, go; see al-²). 4. amphi-, from Greek amphi, around, about. 5. Celtic *ambi, around, in compound *amb(i)-ag-to- (see ag-¹). [Pokorny ambhi 34.]

||_ ambho Both. 1. Reduced form *bhd. both, from Old Norse badhir, both (< *bai thaiz, “both the”; *thaiz, plural third person pronoun; see to-), from German­ic *ba. 2. Full form *ambho. a. ambsace, from Latin ambo, both; b. amphoteric, from Greek ampho, both. [In Pokorny ambhi 34.]

||_ amer- Day. Suffixed form *dmer-a-. ephemeral, hem­eralopia, hemerocallis, from Greek hemerd, day. [Pokorny amer- 35.]

aITIS- Black; blackbird (original color meaning found only in Hittite). (Oldest form *o₂ems-, colored to *o₂ams-, with variant [metathesized] form *o₂mes-.)

1. Suffixed form *ams-ol-. ouzel, from Old English osle, blackbird, from West Germanic *amslon~. 2. Form *(o)mes-. Suffixed forms *mes-ola-, *mes-olo-. merle, merlon, Merlot, from Latin merula, merulus, merle, blackbird. [Pokorny ames- 35.]

||_ an-¹ On.

I. Extended form *ana. 1a. ON; acknowledge, alike, from Old English an, on, a, on, and prefixed on-; b. aloft, amiss, from Old Norse a, in, on; C. an­lage, Anschluss, from Old High German ana-, on; d. onslaught, from Middle Dutch aen, on. a-d all from Germanic *ana, *and. 2. ana², ana-, from Greek ana, on, up, at the rate of.

II. Variant form *no. naprapathy, from Old Church Slavonic na, in, on, to, from Slavic *na. [Pokorny 4. an 39.]

||_ an-² Old woman, ancestor (nursery word), anile, from Latin anus, old woman. [Pokorny 1. an- 36.]

||_ an-³ To pour, draw water. (Oldest form *a₂en-, colored to *a₂un-.) Suffixed form *an-tlo-. Antlia, from Greek antlos, bilge water, bucket. [In Pokorny 1. sem- 901.]

||_ andh- Bloom. Suffixed form *andh-es-. anthemion, ANTHER, ANTHESIS, ANTHO-;ACIDANTHERA, AGAPAN- THUS, CHRYSANTHEMUM, DIANTHUS, EXANTHEMA, HY- DRANTH, MONANTHOUS, STROPHANTHIN, from Greek anthos, flower. [Pokorny andh- 40.]

||_ andho- Blind, dark. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *ondh-ro-. umbel, umbra, umbrella, umbrette; ad­umbrate, somber, sombrero, from Latin umbra, shadow. [Pokorny andho- 41.]

||_ ana- To breathe. (Oldest form *a₂ena_r, colored to *a₂a«a₁-.) 1. Suffixed form *ana-mo-. a. anima, ani­madvert, ANIMAL, ANIMATE, ANIMATO, ANIMISM, ANI­MOSITY, ANIMUS; EQUANIMITY, LONGANIMITY, MAGNANI­MOUS, pusillanimous, unanimous, from Latin ani­mus, reason, mind, spirit, and anima, soul, spirit, life, breath; b. anemo-, anemone, from Greek anemos, wind. 2. Suffixed form *ana-tyo~. Enid (personal name), from Middle Welsh eneit, soul. [Pokorny 3. an(a)- 38.]

||_ anat- Duck. (Oldest form *a₂e«a₂f-, colored to *a₂a«a₂f-.) solan, from Old Norse ond, duck, from Germanic *anud-. [Pokorny anat- 41.]

||_ anata- Doorjamb, anta, from Latin antae (plural), a pair of pillars on the opposite sides of a door. [Po­korny anata 42.]

||_ [angelos Messenger. Greek noun, possibly akin to Greek angaros, mounted courier, both from an un­known Oriental source. Sanskrit ajira-, swift, tradi­tional epithet of dutah, messenger, may be relevant.

1. ANGEL, ANGELICA, ANGELUS; ARCHANGEL, EVANGEL, from Greek angelos, messenger. 2. angary, from Greek angaros, mounted courier.]

||_ angh- Tight, painfully constricted, painful. (Oldest form *angh-.) 1. agnail, hangnail, from Old English ang-naegl, “painful spike (in the flesh),” corn, excres­cence (nazgl, spike; see nogh-), from Germanic *ang-, compressed, hard, painful. 2. Suffixed form *angh- os-. anger, from Old Norse angr, sorrow, grief, from Germanic *angaz. 3. Suffixed form *angh-os-ti-. angst¹, from Old High German angust, anxiety, from Germanic *angusti~. 4. anxious, from Latin angere, to strangle, torment. 5. Suffixed form *angh-os-to-. an­guish, from Latin angustus, narrow. 6. quinsy, from Greek ankhein, to squeeze, embrace. 7. angina, from Greek ankhone, a strangling. [Pokorny angh- 42.]

||_ ang^whi- Snake, eel. 1. Taboo deformation or more likely separate root *og^whi-. ophidian, ophiolite, ophite; ophicleide, ophiology, Ophiuchus, ophi- uroid, from Greek ophis, snake, serpent. 2. Taboo de­formation or separate root *eghi~. a. echino-, echi­nus, from Greek ekhinos, hedgehog (<“snake-eater”); b. echidna, from Greek ekhidna, snake, viper. Both a and b from Greek ekhis, snake. [Pokorny angv(h)i- 43.]

||_ ank- Also ang-. To bend. (Oldest forms *a₂enk-, *a₂eng-, colored to *a₂ank-, *a₂ang-.) 1. Suffixed form *ank-ulo~. a. (i) angle¹, from Old English angel, fish­hook; (ii) England, from Old English Englaland, “land of the Angles,” from Engle, the Angles (< the shape of their original homeland, the Angul district of Schleswig); (iii) Angle, from Latin Angli, the An­gles. (i) and probably (ii) and (iii) from Germanic *ang-ul-; b. ankylosis;ancylostomiasis, from Greek ankulos, crooked, bent. 2. anchor, from Greek ankura, anchor. 3. ancon, from Greek ankon, elbow.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *onk-o~. a. uncinaria, uncinate, uncus; unciform, from Latin uncus,

hooked, bent; b. oncidium; onchocerciasis, from Greek onkos, barb, hook. 5. Variant form *ang-. a. ankle, from Old English ancleow and Old Norse *ankula, ankle, both from Germanic *ankulaz; b. suf­fixed form *ang-olo-. angle², from Latin angulus, angle, corner. [Pokorny 2. ank- 45.]

||_ ano- Ring. 1. anus; anilingus, from Latin anus, ring, anus. 2. annular, annulet, annulus, from Latin di­minutive annulus, ring, signet ring. [Pokorny ano- 47.]

||_ ans- Loop, handle, ansate, from Latin ansa, handle. [Pokorny ansa 48.]

||_ ansu- Spirit. (Oldest form *a₂ensu- [colored to *a₂ansu-} or *a₂onsu~; probably a derivative of the verbal root *a₂ens-, to give birth.) 1a. Old English ds, god, in personal names: (i) Oscar, from Old English Osgdr, “god’s spear” (gar, spear; see ghaiso-); (ii) Os­wald, from Old English Osweald, “god’s power” (weald, power; see wal-); b. Aesir;Asgard, from Old Norse ass, god; C. Old High German ans-, god, in per­sonal name Ansehelm (see kel-²). a-C all from Ger­manic *ansu~. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *nsu-ro-. Ahura Mazda, Ormazd, from Avestan ahura-, spirit, lord, from Indo-Iranian *asuras. [Pokorny ansu- 48.]

*a₂ant-.)

I.    Inflected form (locative singular) *anti, “a­gainst,” with derivatives meaning “in front of,” “be­fore”;also “end.” 1. UN-²; along, from Old English and-, indicating opposition, from Germanic *andi- and *anda-. 2. end, from Old English ende, end, from Germanic *andjaz. 3. ancient¹, ante, ante-, anteri­or; advance, advantage, vanguard, from Latin ante, before, in front of, against. 4. anti-;enantiomer, enantiomorph, from Greek anti, against, and enan- tios, opposite. 5. Compound form *anti-ak^wo-, “ap­pearing before, having prior aspect” (*ak^w-, appear­ance;see ok^w-). antic, antique, from Latin anttquus, former, antique. 6. Reduced form *nti~. a. until, from Old Norse und, until, unto; b. elope, from Middle Dutch ont-, away from. Both a and b from Germanic *und-. 7. Variant form *anto-. Vedanta, from Sanskrit antah, end.

II.    Probable inflected form (ablative plural) *ant-bhi, “from both sides,” whence *ambhi, around. See ambhi-. [Pokorny ant-s 48.]

||_ ap-¹ To take, reach. (Oldest form *a₂ep-, colored to *a₂flp-.) 1. APT, aptitude, artillery, attitude;inept, from Latin apere, to attach, join, tie to. 2. adept, from Latin apisci, to attain. 3. apex, from Latin apex, top, summit (< “something reached”). 4. Prefixed form *ko-ap- (*ko-, together; see kom). cabaletta, copu­la, copulate, couple, from Latin copula, bond, tie, link. 5. ament¹, from Latin ammentum, amentum, thong, strap, perhaps < *ap-mentum, “something tied.” [Pokorny 1. ap- 50.]

||_ ap-² Water. (Oldest form *a₂ep~, colored to *a₂ap-.) 1. julep, from Persian ab, water. 2. Punjab, from Persian Panjab, “five waters, (land of) five rivers” (panj, five;see penk^we). Both 1 and 2 from Iranian *up-, water. [Pokorny 2. dp- 51.]

Language and Culture Note Proto-Indo­European sometimes had two words for the same thing, one of animate gender, and one of inanimate gender. For example, it had two words for “water,” ap-² (animate) and *wod-r (inanimate; see wed-¹). The former is reflected for example in Sanskrit apah, “waters,” and the latter in Hittite watar, Greek hudor, and English water. Proto-Indo-European also had two words for “fire,” egni- (animate) and paawr (inan­imate). The former underlies Sanskrit agnih and Latin ignis, and the latter Hittite pahhur, Greek pur, and English fire. It is believed that the neuter-gender terms referred to water or fire as a substance, while

the animate (gendered) terms were used when water or fire was conceived of as an active, living force.

||_ apero- Shore. Perhaps a derivative of ap-². Suffixed form *aper-yo~. epeirogeny, from Greek epeiros, land, mainland, continent. [Pokorny apero- 53.]

||_ apo- Also ap-. Off, away. 1a. of, off, offal, from Old English of, aef, off; b. ebb, from Old English ebba, low tide; C. ablaut, from Old High German aba, off, away from; d. aft; abaft, from Old English aeftan, behind, from Germanic *aftan-. a-d all from Germanic *«/.

2.    ab-¹, from Latin ab, ab-, away from. 3. apo-, from Greek apo, away from, from. 4. Suffixed (compara­tive) form *ap(o)-tero~. after, from Old English cefter, after, behind, from Germanic *aftar-. 5. Suf­fixed form *ap-t-is-. eftsoons, from Old English eft, again, from Germanic *aftiz. 6. Suffixed form *apu-ko-. awkward, from Old Norse ofugr, turned backward, from Germanic *afuga-. 7. Basic form *apo. Iranian *apa, back, away, after, in (comparative) *apara-, back farther (see danu-). 8. Possible variant root form *po(s), on, in. a. pogrom, from Russian po, at, by, next to; b. post-, posterior; postmortem, pre­posterous, puisne, puny, from Latin post, behind, back, afterward; c. apposite, apposition, apropos, COMPONENT, COMPOSE, COMPOSITE, COMPOSITION, COM­POST, COMPOTE, COMPOUND, CONTRAPPOSTO, DEPONE, DEPOSIT, DISPOSE, EXPONENT, EXPOSE, EXPOUND, IMPOSE, IMPOST¹, IMPOST², INTERPOSE, JUXTAPOSE, OPPOSE, POSI­TION, POSITIVE, POST², POST³, POSTICHE, POSTURE, PREP­OSITION, PROPOSE, PROVOST, PUNT³, REPOSIT, SUPPOSE, transpose, from Latin ponere, to put, place, from *po-s(i)nere (sinere, to leave, let; of obscure origin). [Pokorny apo- 53.]

||_ apsa- Aspen, aspen, from Old English eespe, aspen, from Germanic *aspon-. [Pokorny apsa 55.]

||_ ar- To fit together. (Oldest form *a,i?r-.) 1. Suffixed form *ar-mo-. a. arm¹, from Old English earm, arm, from Germanic *armaz; b. ambry, arm², armada, ar­madillo, ARMATURE, ARMOIRE, ARMY; ALARM, DISARM, gendarme, from Latin arma, tools, arms; C. armillary sphere, from Latin armus, upper arm. 2. Suffixed form *ar-smo-. harmony, from Greek harmos, joint, shoulder. 3. Suffixed form *ar-ti-. a. art¹, artisan, artist; inert, inertia, from Latin ars (stem art-), art, skill, craft; b. further suffixed form *ar-ti-o-. artio- dactyl, from Greek artios, fitting, even. 4. Suffixed form *ar-tu~. article, from Latin artus, joint. 5. Suf­fixed form *ar-to~. coarctate, from Latin artus, tight. 6. Suffixed form *ar-dhro-. arthro-;anar­throus, DIARTHROSIS, DYSARTHRIA, ENARTHROSIS, SYN­ARTHROSIS, from Greek arthron, joint. 7. Suffixed (su­perlative) form *ar-isto-. aristocracy, from Greek aristos, best (< “most fitting”). [Pokorny 1. ar- 55.]

||_ ara- To plow. (Oldest form *a₂era₃-, colored to *3₂ar3y.) arable, from Latin arare, to plow. [Pokorny ar(o)- 62.]

||_ arg- To shine; white; the shining or white metal, silver. (Oldest form *3₂(e)rg~, colored to *3₂(a)rg-.) 1. Suf­fixed form *arg-ent-. argent, argentine, from Latin argentum, silver. 2. Suffixed form *arg-i-l(l)-. argil, from Greek argillos, white clay. 3. Suffixed form *arg-u-ro-. litharge, pyrargyrite, from Greek ar- guros, silver. 4. Suffixed form *arg-i-n-. arginine, from Greek arginoeis, brilliant, bright-shining. 5. Suffixed form *arg-u-, brilliant, clear, argue, from Latin denominative arguere, to make clear, demon­strate (< *argu-yo-). 6. Suffixed zero-grade form *3rg-ro-, becoming *arg-ro-. agrimony, possibly from Greek argos, white (< *argros). [Pokorny ar(e)-g- 64.]

||_ [arkhein To begin, rule, command. Greek verb of unknown origin, but showing archaic Indo-European features like alternation arkh- : o-grade orkh-, with derivatives arkhe, rule, beginning, and arkhos, ruler. ARCH-, -ARCH, ARCHAEO-, ARCHAIC, ARCHI-, ARCHIVE, ARCHON, -ARCHY; AUTARCHY, ENDARCH, EXARCH¹, EXARCH², MENARCHE, MESARCH, XERARCH.]

||_ arkll- Bow and arrow (uncertain which, perhaps both as a unit). 1. arrow, from Old English ar(e)we, earh, and Old Norse *arw-, arrow, from Germanic *arhwd.

2.    ARC, ARCADE, ARCH¹, ARCHER; ARBALEST, ARCHIVOLT, arciform, arcuate, from Latin arcus, bow. [Pokorny arqu- 67.]

||_ [aryo- Self-designation of the Indo-Iranians. Perhaps a derivative of ar-. 1. Aryan, from Sanskrit drya-, compatriot. 2. Iran, from Middle Persian Eran (sahr), (land) of the Iranians, genitive plural of Er, an Iranian, from Old Persian ariya-, compatriot. [Po­korny ario- 67.]]

||_ as- To burn, glow. (Oldest form *a₂es-, colored to *3₂as-.) 1. Extended form *asg-. ash¹, from Old Eng­lish cesce, asce, ash, from Germanic *askon~. 2. Suf­fixed form *as-a-. Ara, from Latin ara, altar, hearth.

3.    Suffixed (stative) form *as-e-. a. arid, from Latin aridus, dry, parched, from arere, to be dry; b. ardent, ardor, arson, from Latin ardere, to burn, be on fire, from aridus, parched. 4. Extended form *asd-. a. zamia, from Greek azein, to dry; b. azalea, from Greek azaleos, dry. [Pokorny ds- 68.]

||_ [asinus Ass. Latin noun, akin to Greek onos, ass, probably ultimately from the same source as Sumer­ian anse, ass. 1. asinine, ass¹, easel, from Latin asinus, ass. 2. onager, from Greek onos, ass.]

||_ at- To go; with Germanic and Latin derivatives mean­ing a year (conceived as “the period gone through, the revolving year”). Suffixed form *at-no~. annals, an­nual, annuity; anniversary, biennium, decennium, MILLENNIUM, PERENNIAL, QUADRENNIUM, QUINDECENNI- AL, QUINQUENNIUM, SEPTENNIAL, SEXENNIAL, SUPERAN­NUATED, triennium, vicennial, from Latin annus, year. [Pokorny at- 69.]

||_ at-al- Race, family. Compound root, probably related to Greek atallein, to foster, and to Tocharian A atal, man. Compounded from *at(i)-, over, beyond, su­per-, and al-³, to nourish, but a separate word in In­do-European, perhaps “noble fosterling.” 1. athe- ling, from Old English aztheling, prince. 2a. Audrey (personal name); tawdry, from Old English aethel- thryth, “noble might” (thryth, might); b. Ethelred (personal name), from Old English aethelrded, “noble counsel” (raed, counsel; see re-). Both a and b from Old English asthele, noble. 3. edelweiss, from Old High German edili, noble, from Germanic suffixed form *ath(a)l-ja-. 4. Old High German adal, (noble) lineage, in personal names: a. Adelaide, Alice, from Old High German Adalhaid (> Old French Aliz) “no­bility” (-heit, -haid, -hood; see (s)kai-¹); b. Adolph, from Old High German Athalwolf, Adulf, “noble wolf” (wolf, wolf; see wlk^wo-). 1-4 all from Ger­manic *athala-. [In Pokorny dtos 71.]

||_ ater- Fire. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *atr-o-. atra­bilious, from Latin ater (feminine dtra), black (< “blackened by fire”). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *dtr-yo~. atrium, from Latin atrium, forecourt, hall, atrium (perhaps originally the place where the smoke from the hearth escaped through a hole in the roof). 3. Compound shortened zero-grade form *atro-3k^w-, “black-looking” (*3k^w-, “looking”; see ok^w-). atro­cious, from Latin atrox, frightful. 4. Basic form *ater. zircon, from Old Persian *atar, fire (stem df- attested in month name Agiyadiya, “(month) of fire-wor­ship”), from Indo-Iranian *atar. 5. Possibly, but ob­scurely related to this root is Sanskrit atharva, athar- van-, priest (-van-, possessive suffix): Atharva-Veda. [Pokorny dt(e)r- 69.]

||_ atto- Father (nursery word). Possibly Latin atta, fa­ther: atavism. [In Pokorny ätos 71.]

||_ ail-¹ Pronominal base appearing in particles and ad­verbs. 1. Suffixed form *au-ge possibly in Germanic *auke (but this is perhaps better referred to aug-¹). eke², from Old English eac, *ec, also. 2. Suffixed form ossia, from Latin aut, or. [Pokorny 4. au- 73.]

71.}

||_ au-³ To weave. (Oldest form *a₂ew-, colored to *a₂au-.) Extended form *wedh- (< earlier *a₂wed/i-). 1. weed², from Old English *wizd, *wtzde, garment, cloth, from Germanic *wedö. 2. wattle, from Old English watel, watul, wattle, from Germanic *wadlaz. [Pokorny 5. au- 75.]

||_ au-⁴ To perceive. (Oldest form                      Compound

forms *au-dh-, *awis-dh-, “to place perception” (*dh-, to place; see dhe-). 1. Suffixed form *awis- dh-yo- or *audh-yo~. audible, audience, audile, au­dio-, AUDIT, AUDITION, AUDITOR, AUDITORIUM, AUDITO­RY, oyez; obey, subaudition, from Latin audire, to hear. 2. aesthetic;anesthesia, from Greek aisthanes­thai, to feel. [Pokorny 8. au- 78.]

||_ aug-¹ To increase. (Oldest form *a₂eug-, colored to *a₂aug-, with variant [metathesized] form *a₂weg-.)

1.    eke¹, from Old English eacan, ecan, to increase; b. nickname, from Old English eaca, an addition. Both a and b from Germanic *aukaw, C. possibly German­ic imperative *auke, “increase, add,” perhaps the source of the particle *auke, also (but this is usually referred to ail-¹). 2. Variant form *(o)weg-, extended to *wegs- (o-grade *wogs-). a. wax²; woodwaxen, from Old English weaxan, to grow, from Germanic *wahsan; b. waist, from Old English *wcest, growth, hence perhaps waist, size, from Germanic *wahs-tu-. 3. Form *aug-e-. auction, augend, augment, au­thor, authorize, from Latin augere, to increase. 4. augur; inaugurate, from Latin augur, diviner (< “he who obtains favorable presage” < “divine favor, in­crease”). 5. august, from Latin augustus, majestic, august. 6. Suffixed form *aug-s-. a. auxiliary, from Latin auxilium, aid, support, assistance; b. auxin, auxesis, from Greek auxein, auxanein, to increase. [Pokorny aueg- 84.]

||_ aug-² To shine. Suffixed form *aug-d-. augite, from Greek auge, light, ray. [Pokorny aug- 87.]

||_ auk^w- Cooking pot. 1. oven, from Old English ofen, furnace, oven, from Germanic *ufna-, from German­ic suffixed form *uhw-na-. 2. Suffixed form *auk-sla~. olla, from Latin aulla, olla, olla, pot, jar. [Pokorny auqv(h)- 88.]

||_ aulo- Hole, cavity. 1. Variant (metathesized) form *alwo-. alveolus, from Latin alvus, belly, stomach. 2. Basic form *aulo-. carol, hydraulic, from Greek aulos, pipe, flute, hollow tube. [Pokorny au-lo-s 88.]

||_ aus-¹ To shine (said especially of the dawn). (Oldest form *3j£ius- or [less likely] *a₂eus- [colored to *a₂fl«s-];perhaps an extension of au-⁴.) 1a. east, from Old English east, east (< “the direction of the sunrise”); b. ostmark, from Old High German östan, east. Both a and b from Germanic *aust-. 2a. east­ern, from Old English easterne, eastern; b. Austria, from German Österreich (> New Latin Austria), “east­ern kingdom,” from Old High German östar, eastern;

c.   Ostrogoth, from Late Latin ostro-, eastern, a-c all from Germanic *austra~. 3. Easter, from Old English eastre, Easter, from Germanic *auströn-, dawn. 4. Possibly in Latin auster, the south wind, formally identical to the Germanic forms in 2 and 3, but the semantics are unclear: Austro-¹. 5. Probably suffixed form *ausös-, dawn, also Indo-European goddess of the dawn. a. aurora, from Latin aurora, dawn; b.

EO-, Eos; eosin, from Greek eos (< *awos < *ausos), dawn. [Pokorny aues- 86.]

||_ aus-² Gold. Root found in Latin, Baltic, Tocharian, and possibly Armenian. Connection with aus-¹ likely. Suffixed form *aus-o-. aureate, aureole, auric; au­riferous, DARIOLE, DORY², F.YRIR, MOIDORE, OR³, ORE, ORIFLAMME, ORIOLE, ORMOLU, OROIDE, ORPHREY, ORPI­MENT, from Latin aurum, gold. [In Pokorny aues- 86.) aus-³ To draw water. (Oldest form *a₂eus~, colored to *a₂iiws-.) Suffixed form *aus-yo-. haustellum, haus- torium; exhaust, from Latin haurire, to draw up.

[Pokorny aus- 90.]

||_ awi- Bird. (Oldest form *o₂ewi-, colored to *o₂awi-.)

I. 1. AVIAN, AVIARY, AVIATION; AVICULTURE, AVIFAU­NA, bustard, ocarina, osprey, ostrich, from Latin avis, bird. 2. Compound *awi-spek-, “observer of birds” (*spek-, to see; see spek-), auspice, from Latin auspex, augur.

II. A possible derivative is the Indo-European word for egg, *ôwyo-, *ôyyo- (< suffixed lengthened o-grade form *d₂ôw-yo~). 1a. cockney, from Old English æg, egg; b. egg', from Old Norse egg, egg. Both a and b from Germanic *ajja(m). 2. oval, ovary, ovate, ovi-, ovoi.o, ovule, ovum, from Latin ovum, egg. 3. oo-, from Greek own, egg. 4. caviar, from a source akin to Middle Persian khdyak, egg, from Old Iranian *âvyaka-, diminutive of *âvya-, egg. [Pokorny auei- 86, o(u)i-om 783.]

||_ awo- An adult male relative other than one’s father. 1. atavism, from Latin avus, grandfather. 2. avuncu­lar, uncle, from Latin avunculus, maternal uncle. 3. ayah, from Latin avia, grandmother. [Pokorny auo-s 89.]                                                          '

||_ ayer- Day, morning. 1a. early, ere, or², from Old English ær, before; b. or², from Old Norse dr, before. Both a and b from Germanic *airiz. 2. erst, from Old English œrest, earliest, from Germanic (superla­tive). *airista-. [Pokorny aier- 12.]

||_ ayes- A metal, copper or bronze, aeneous, era, from Latin aes, bronze, money. [Pokorny aios- 15.]

||_ badyo- Yellow, brown. A western Indo-European word, bay³, from Latin badius, chestnut-brown (used only of horses). [Pokorny badios 92.]

||_ bak- Staff used for support. 1. Probably Middle Dutch pegge (>Middle English pegge), pin, peg: peg. 2. ba CILLUS, BAGUETTE, BAIL⁴, BAILEY;BACULIFORM, DEBACLE, imbecile, from Latin baculum, rod, walking stick. 3. bacterium;corynebacterium, from Greek baktron, staff. [Pokorny bak- 93.]

||_ band- A drop. Possibly Irish bainne, milk: bonnyclab- ber. [Pokorny band- 95.]

||_ [bassus Low. Late Latin adjective (> Medieval Latin bassus, Old French bas, and Middle English bas), pos­sibly from Oscan. base², bass², basso;abase, bas-re­lief, basset horn, basset hound, debase.]

||_ [bat- Yawning. Latin root of unknown origin;proba­bly imitative. 1a. bay², bevel; abash, abeyance, from Old French ba(y)er, to yawn, gape; b. badinage, from Provençal badar, to yawn. Both a and b from Latin *batare, to yawn, gape. 2. bay⁴, from Old French (a)baiier, to bay, from Vulgar Latin *abbaiare, possi­bly from Latin *batare.]

||_ bel- Strong. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *bol-iyo~. Bol­shevik, from Russian bol’shoi, large. 2. Prefixed form *dê-bel-i-, “without strength” (de-, privative prefix; see de-). debilitate, debility, from Latin debilis, weak. [Pokorny 2. bel- 96.]

||_ bend- Protruding point. Possible root, found only Celtic and Germanic. 1. pen², from Old English penn, pen for cattle, from Germanic *pannja-, “structure of stakes.” 2. pond, pound³; impound, pinfold, from Old English pund- (> Middle English pound) in pundfald, enclosure for stray animals, possibly from Germanic

*pund-. 3. pintle, from Old English pintel, penis, from Germanic *pin-. [Pokorny bend- 96.)

||_ beu- Also bheu-. Probably imitative root, appearing in words loosely associated with the notion “to swell.”

I. Basic form *beu-. 1a. pock, from Old English pocc, pustule; b. poach¹, pocket, poke³, pouch, puck­er, from Old French po(u)che and Old North French poke, bag. Both a and b from Germanic *puk-. 2. puff, from Old English pyffan, to blow out. 3. pout², from Old English -pute, “fish with large head” (in œle-püte, eelpout). 4a. bill¹, billet¹, bola, boule², BOWL², BULL², BULLA, BULLATE, BULLET, BULLETIN; BOU­LEVERSEMENT, from Latin bulla, bubble, round object, amulet (> Old French boule and Spanish bola, ball); b. BOIL¹, BOUILLON, BUDGE¹, BULLION, BULLY²; BOUILLA­BAISSE, ebullience, GARBOIL, parboil, from Latin de­nominative verb bullïre, to bubble, boil (> French bouiller). 5. Possibly Latin bucca, mouth (>Old French boucle, buckle, curl, and Spanish boca, mouth): bocaccio, bouclé, buccal, buckle¹, buckle²;debouch, disembogue, embouchure. 6. bubo, from Greek boubôn, groin, swollen gland.

II. Variant form *bheu- with various Germanic de­rivatives. 1. buckboard, from Old English büc, belly, pitcher, from Germanic *bükaz, belly. 2. trebuchet, from Frankish *bük (> Old French buc), trunk of the body. 3. boil², from Old English bÿl(e), pustule, from West Germanic *büljô(n-). 4. boast¹, from Middle English host, a bragging, from a source akin to German dialectal baustern, to swell. [Pokorny 2. b(e)u- 98.]

||_ bha-¹ To shine. (Oldest form *bheo₂-, colored to *bhas₂-, contracted to *bha-.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bho-w-. a. beacon, from Old English beac(e)n, beacon; b. beckon, from Old English bêcnan, biecnan, to make a sign, beckon, from Germanic denominative *bauknjan; c. buoy, from Old French boue, buoy. a-C all from Germanic *baukna-, beacon, signal. 2. Per­haps Germanic * bas) am, *bazjam, berry (< “bright- colored fruit”), a. berry; mulberry, from Old Eng­lish berie, berige, berry, and Old High German beri, berry, from Germanic *bazjôn-, remade from *baz- jam; b. frambesia, from Old French framboise, rasp­berry, alteration of Frankish *bram-besi, “bramble berry,” from Germanic *basjam. 3a. bandoleer, from Spanish banda, sash; b. banderilla, banderole, ban­ner, banneret¹, banneret², from Late Latin bandum, banner, standard. Both a and b from Germanic *bandwa-, “identifying sign,” banner, standard, sash, also “company united under a (particular) banner.” 4. Suffixed zero-grade form *bho-w-es-. phos-, phot, photo-; phosphorus, from Greek phôs (stem phot-), light. 5. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhd-w-, Phaë- thon, from Greek phaeithein, to shine, burn. 6. Ex­tended and suffixed zero-grade form *bho-n-yo-. fan­tasy, pant, -phane, phantasm, phantom, phase, PHENO-, PHENOMENON;DIAPHANOUS, EMPHASIS, EPIPHA­NY, HIEROPHANT, PHANEROGAM, PHANEROZOIC, PHAN­TASMAGORIA, PHOSPHENE, SYCOPHANT, THEOPHANY, TIF­FANY, from Greek phainein, “to bring to light,” cause to appear, show, and phainesthai (passive), “to be brought to light,” appear, with zero-grade noun phasis (*bho-ti-), an appearance. [Pokorny 1. bhâ- 104.]

bhâ-² To speak. (Oldest form *bheo₂-> colored to *bhao₂-, contracted to *bha-.) 1. fable, fabliau, fab­ulous, FADO, FAIRY, FANDANGO, FATE, FAY²; AFFABLE, FANTOCCINI, INEFFABLE, INFANT, INFANTRY, PREFACE, from Latin fârï, to speak. 2. -phasia;apophasis, prophet, from Greek phanai, to speak. 3a. ban¹, from Old English bannan, to summon, proclaim, and Old Norse banna, to prohibit, curse; b. banal, banns; abandon, from Old French ban, feudal jurisdiction, summons to military service, proclamation, Old French bandon, power, and Old English gebann, proc­lamation; C. banish, from Old French banir, to ban-

ish; d. contraband, from Late Latin bannus, ban- num, proclamation; e. bandit, from Italian bandire, to muster, band together (< “to have been sum­moned”). a-e all from Germanic suffixed form "ban-wan, ★ bannan, to speak publicly (used of partic­ular kinds of proclamation in feudal or prefeudal cus­tom; “to proclaim under penalty, summon to the levy, declare outlaw”). 4. Suffixed form ★ bha-ni-. a. boon¹, from Old Norse bon, prayer, request; b. bee¹, perhaps from Old English ben, prayer, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse bon, prayer. Both a and b from Germanic ★ boni-. 5. Suffixed form ★ bha-ma-. a. fame, famous; defame, infamous, from Latin fama, talk, reputation, fame; b. euphemism, Polyphemus, from Greek pheme, saying, speech. 6. Suffixed o-grade form ★ bho-na-. phone², -phone, phoneme, phonetic, phono-, -phony; anthem, antiphon, apho­nia, cacophonous, euphony, symphony, from Greek phone, voice, sound, and (denominative) phonein, to speak. 7. Suffixed zero-grade form ★ bho-to-. confess, profess, from Latin fateri, to acknowledge, admit. 8. blame, blaspheme, from Greek blasphemos, blasphe­mous, perhaps from ★ mls-bha-mo-, “speaking evil” (*m/s-, evil; see mel-⁵). [Pokorny 2. bha- 105.]

||_ bha-bha- Broad bean. 1. fava bean, favela, from Latin faba, broad bean. 2. Variant form ★ bha-un-. bean, from Old English bean, broad bean, bean of any kind, from Germanic ★ baund. 3. Possible suffixed form *bha-ko~. phacoemulsification, from Greek phakos, lentil. [Pokorny bhabha 106.]

||_ bhad- Good. 1. better, from Old English betera, bet­ter, from Germanic (comparative) ★ batizd. 2. best, from Old English bet(e)st, best, from Germanic (su­perlative) ★ batista-. 3. boot², from Old English bdt, remedy, aid, from Germanic ★ botd. 4. batten¹, ulti­mately from Old Norse batna, to improve, from Ger­manic ★ batnan, to become better. [Pokorny bhdd- 106.]

||_ bhag- To share out, apportion, also to get a share. 1. -PHAGE, -PHAGIA, PHAGO-, -PHAGOUS;ESOPHAGUS, from Greek phagein, to eat (< “to have a share of food”). 2. porgy, from Greek phagros, whetstone (“eater, that eats metal”), also a name for the sea bream, from Greek suffixed form ★ phag-ro-. 3a. Slavic *bogu, god, in Czech boh, god, in personal name Bohuslav (see kleu-); b. nebbish, from a Slavic source akin to Czech neboh, poor, unfortunate, from Common Slavic ★ ne-bogu, poor (“un-endowed”). 4. pagoda; Bhaga- vad-Gita, from Sanskrit bhagah, good fortune. 5. bhakti, from Sanskrit bhajati, he apportions. 6. Ex­tended form "bhags-. baksheesh, buckshee, from Per­sian bakhshidan, to give, from Avestan bakhsh-. [Pokorny 1. bhag- 107.]

||_ bhaghu- Arm. (Oldest form ★ bhaghu-.) bough, from Old English bog, boh, bough, from Germanic *boguz. [Pokorny bhaghu-s (misprint for bhaghu-s) 108.]

||_ bhago- Beech tree. 1a. book, from Old English boc, written document, composition; b. buckwheat, from Middle Dutch boek, beech; c. BokmAl, from Norwe­gian bok, book. a-C all from Germanic *bokd, beech, also “beech staff for carving runes on” (an early Ger­manic writing device). 2. beech, from Old English bece, beech, from Germanic ★ bdkjon-. [Pokorny bhago-s 107.]

||_ bhardh-a- Beard. 1. beard, from Old English beard, beard, from Germanic ★ bardaz. 2. halberd, from Old High German barta, beard, ax, from Germanic ★ bar­do, beard, also hatchet, broadax. 3. barb¹, barbel¹, barbellate, barber, barbette, barbicel, barbule;rebarbative, from Latin barba, beard. [Pokorny bhardha 110.]

||_ bhars-¹ Also bhors-. Projection, bristle, point.

I. Suffixed o-grade form ★ bhors-o-. bass¹, from Old

English beers, perch, bass (a fish that has a spiny dorsal fin), from Germanic ★ barsaz.

II. Zero-grade form *bhrs~. 1. bur¹, from Middle English burre, bur, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish borre, bur, from Germanic *burz-. 2. Suf­fixed from *bhrs-dh-. brad, from Old Norse broddr, spike, from Germanic *bruzdaz, point, needle. 3. Suf­fixed zero-grade form *bhrs-ti~. a. bristle, from Old English byrst (> Middle English bristel), bristle, from Germanic *bursti-; b. fastigiate, fastigium, from Latin fastigium, summit, top, extremity. 4. Possibly suffixed form *bhrs-tu~. fastidious, from Latin Jus­tus, fastidium, disdain (from the notion of prickli­ness). 5. Suffixed form *bhrs-tio-. borscht, from Russian borshch, cow parsnip (from its sharp leaves). [Pokorny bhar- 108.]

||_ bhars-² Barley. Probably from bhars-¹, from its ap­pearance. 1a. barn, from Old English here, barley, from Germanic *bariz-; b. barley, from Old English baerlic, barley-like, of barley, from Germanic *barz-.

2. FARINA, FARINACEOUS, FARRAGINOUS, FARRAGO, from Latin far (stem/urr-), spelt, grain. [Pokorny bhares- 111. ]

||_ bhasko- Band, bundle. 1. fasces, fascicle, fascine, fascism, from Latin fascis, bundle (as of rods, twigs, or straw), also crowd of people. 2. fajita, fascia, fess¹, from Latin fascia, band, bandage. 3. Possibly Latin fascinum, fascinus, an amulet in the shape of a phal­lus, hence a bewitching: fascinate. [Pokorny bhasko-

111. ]

||_ bhau- To strike. (Oldest form *bheo₂u-, colored to *bhao₂u-, contracted to *bhau-, with variant [me- tathesized] form *bheud₂-, whence zero-grade *bhuo₂-, contracted to *bhu-.)

I. Germanic extended form *baut~. 1. beat, from Old English beatan, to beat, from Germanic *bautan.

2. beetle³; battledore, from Old English bytl, ham­mer, mallet, from Germanic *bautilaz, hammer. 3. baste³, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse beysta, to beat, denominative from Ger­manic *baut-sti-. 4. buttock, from Old English di­minutive buttuc, end, strip of land, from Germanic *butaz. 5a. halibut, from Middle Dutch butte, flat­fish; b. turbot, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish but, flatfish. Both a and b from Ger­manic *butt-, name for a flatfish. 6. bouton, butt¹, button, buttress; abut, rebut, sackbut, from Old French bo(u)ter, to strike, push, from Germanic *but- tan,

II. Zero-grade variant form *bhu~. 1. Suffixed form *bhu-t-a~. a. confute, from Latin confutare, to check, suppress, restrain (com-, intensive prefix; see kom); b. refute, from Latin refutare, to drive back, rebut (re-, back; see re-). 2. Possibly reduced suffixed form *bhu-tu- febhou-). footle; clafouti, from Latin futuere, to have intercourse with (a woman). [Po­korny 1. bhau- 112.]

||_ bhe- To warm. (Contracted from earlier *h/iea_r.) 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhd-to-. bath¹, bathe, from Old English baeth, a bath, and its denominative bathian, to bathe. 2. Extended zero-grade form *bhog-. a. bake, from Old English bacan, to bake; b. zwieback, from Old High German bakan, bakkan, to bake. Both a and b from Germanic *bakan, to bake. [Pokorny bhe- 113.]

||_ bhedh- To dig. O-grade form *bhodh-. 1. bed, from Old English bed(d), bed, from Germanic *badjam, garden plot, also sleeping place. 2. fossa, fosse, fossil, fossorial, from Latin fodere, to dig. [Pokorny 1. bhedh- 113.]

||_ bheg- To break. Possibly in various Germanic forms. Akin to bhreg-. 1a. BANG¹, probably from a Scandi­navian source akin to Old Norse banga, to hammer; b. bungle, possibly from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish dialectal bangla, to work inefficiently. Both a and b from Germanic nasalized form *bang-. 2a. bench, from Old English bene, bench; b. bank¹,

from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Danish banke, sandbank; c. bank², bantling, bunco; bank­rupt, from Old High German banc, bank, bench, moneychanger’s table (> Italian banco)', d. bank³, banquet, from Old French banc, bench; e. ban­quette, from Provençal banca, bench, a-e all from Germanic nasalized forms *bankiz and *bankôn-, bank of earth (possibly < “feature where the contour of the ground is broken,” escarpment, riverbank, pos­sibly also associated with “manmade earthwork”), later also bench, table. 3. bhang, from Sanskrit bhan- gah, (“pounded”) hemp, seen by some as the same word as bhahga-, breaking, pounding, from nasalized form *bheng-. [Pokorny bheg- 114.]

||_ bheg^w- To run. 1. O-grade form *bhog^w-. beck², from Old Norse bekkr, a stream, from Germanic *bakjaz, a stream. 2. -phobe, -phobia, from Greek phebesthai, to fear, and derived o-grade noun phobos, fear. [Pokorny bhegv- 116.]

||_ bhei- A bee. bee¹, from Old English bëo, a bee, from Germanic suffixed form *bion-. [Pokorny bhei- 116.]

ro-grade form *bhid-to-). [Pokorny bheid- 116.]

await (< “to await trustingly, expect, trust”), abide, abode, from Old English bidan, to wait, stay. 2. fian­cé, FIDUCIAL, FIDUCIARY; AFFIANCE, AFFIANT, AFFIDAVIT, CONFIDANT, CONFIDE, CONFIDENT, DEFIANCE, DEFY, DIF­FIDENT, from Latin fidere, to trust, confide, and fidus, faithful. 3. Suffixed o-grade form *bhoidh-es-. feder­al, federate; confederate, from Latin foedus (stem feeder-), treaty, league. 4. Zero-grade form *bhidh-. faith, fay³, fealty, fideism, fidelity; infidel, perfidy, from Latin fidês, faith, trust. [Pokorny 1. bheidh-

117.                                                                                          ]       

Language and Culture Note The root bheidh-, “to trust,” whose English derivatives include faith, fidelity, and confererate, is noteworthy in that its descendants in several of the Indo-Euro­pean daughter languages refer specifically to the mutual trust on which covenants and social contracts must stand in order to be binding. Latin, for example, gets the general word for “trust,” fidês, as well as the word for “treaty,” foedus, from this root. In Greek, various derivatives of the root appear together with the noun (pro)xeniâ, “guest-friendship, hospitality,” and related words, as in phrases translating “I trust in hospitality”: the guest-host relationship was a cove­nant of central importance between strangers in ancient Indo-European societies (see the note at ghos-ti-). Finally, and perhaps most interestingly, is an obscure word from Northern Albanian customary law referring to a pledge given by the family of a mur­dered man to the family of the murderer that they would refrain for a time from blood-feud. This

pledge or truce, called besè, is a fundamental expres­sion of the social contract, and comes from *bhidh-tyà-, a suffixed zero-grade form of bheidh-.

||_ bheid- To strike. (Oldest form *bheio₂~-) 1- bill², from Old English bile, bird’s beak, possibly from Ger­manic suffixed form *bili~. 2. bill³, from Old English bil(l), sharp weapon, from Germanic suffixed form *bilja-. 3. Bohemia, bohemian, from Latin Boihae- mum, “home of the Boii,” from Boil, “fighters,” Celtic tribe that originally inhabited the region ( -haemum, home, from Germanic; see tkei-). [Pokorny bhei(d)-

117.   ]

||_ bheig^w- To shine. An uncertain but plausible root. O-grade form *bhoig^w-. phoebe, Phoebe, Phoebus, from Greek phoibos, shining. [Pokorny bheig^u- 118.]

||_ bhel-¹ To shine, flash, burn; shining white and various bright colors.

I. Suffixed full-grade form *bhel-o-. 1a. beluga, from Russian belyi, white; b. Old Church Slavonic belu, white, ultimately in Serbo-Croatian compound Beograd (see gher-¹). Both a and b from Slavic *belu; c. Beltane, from Scottish Gaelic bealltainn, from Old Irish beltaine, “fire of Bel” (ten, tene, fire; see tep-), from Bel, name of a pagan Irish deity akin to the Gaulish divine name Belenos, from Celtic *bel-o-, bright. 2. phalarope, from Greek phalaros, having a white spot.

II. Extended root *bhleo_{-, contracted to *bhle-. 1. Suffixed form *bhle-wo-. blue, from Old French bleu, blue, from Germanic *blewaz, blue. 2. Suffixed ze­ro-grade form *bhlp-wo-. flavescent, flavo-; flavin, flavone, flavoprotein, from Latin flàvus, golden or reddish yellow.

III. Various extended Germanic forms. 1. bleach, from Old English blazcan, to bleach, from Germanic *blaikjan, to make white. 2. bleak', from Old Norse bleikr, shining, white, from Germanic *blaika-, shin­ing, white. 3. blitzkrieg, from Old High German blecchazzen, to flash, lighten, from Germanic ★ blikkatjan. 4a. blaze', from Old English blaese, torch, bright fire; b. blesbok, from Middle Dutch bles, white spot; C. blemish, from Old French ble(s)mir, to make pale. a-C all from Germanic *blas-, shining, white. 5a. blind; blindfold, purblind, from Old English blind, blind, from Germanic ^blinda-, blind (< “cloudy”); b. blende, from Old High German blen- tan, to blind, deceive, from Germanic *blandjan, to blind (perhaps < “to make cloudy, deceive”); C. blend, from Old Norse blanda, to mix, from Germanic *blandan, to mix (< “to make cloudy”); d. blond, from Old French blond, blond, from Frankish *blund-, from Germanic *blunda~. 6a. blench', from Old English blencan, to deceive; b. blanch, blank, blanket; blancmange, from Old French blanc, white. Both a and b from Germanic *blenk-, *blank~, to shine, dazzle, blind. 7. blush, from Old English bly- scan, to glow red, from Germanic *blisk-, to shine, burn.

IV. Extended root *bhleg-, to shine, flash, burn. 1. O-grade form bhlog-. black, from Old English blaze, black, from Germanic *blakaz, burned. 2. Zero-grade form *bhlg-. a. fulgent, fulgurate; effulgent, foudroyant, refulgent, from Latin fulgére, to flash, shine, and f ulgur, lightning; b. fulminate, from Latin fulmen (< *fulg-men), lightning, thunderbolt. 3a. flagrant;conflagrant, conflagration, defla­grate, from Latin flagrare, to blaze; b. chamise, FLAMBÉ, FLAMBEAU, FLAMBOYANT, FLAME, FLAMINGO, flammable;inflame, from Latin fiamma (< *flag-ma), a flame. 4. phlegm, phlegmatic, Phlege- thon, from Greek phlegein, to burn. 5. O-grade form *bhlog-. phlogiston, phlox; phlogopite, from Greek phlox, a flame, also a wallflower. [Pokorny 1. bhel-

118,    bheleg- 124, bhleu-(k)- 159.]

||_ bhel-² To blow, swell; with derivatives referring to various round objects and to the notion of tumescent masculinity. 1. Zero-grade form bhl-. a. bowl¹, from Old English bolla, pot, bowl; b. bole, from Old Norse bolr, tree trunk; C. bulk, from Old Norse bulki, cargo (< “rolled-up load”); d. rocambole, from Old High German bolla, ball; e. boulevard, bulwark, from Mid­dle High German bole, beam, plank; f. boll, from Middle Dutch bolle, round object; g. biltong, from Middle Dutch bille, buttock; h. boulder, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish bullersten, “rounded stone,” boulder, from *buller-, “round ob­ject.” a-h all from Germanic *bul-. 2. Suffixed ze­ro-grade form *bh¡-n-. a. bull¹, from Old Norse boli, bull, from Germanic ^bullón-; b. bullock, from Old English bulluc, bull, from Germanic *bulluka-; C. phallus;ithyphallic, from Greek phallos, phallus; d. possibly Latin fulld, a fuller: full². 3. O-grade form *bhol-. a. bollix, from Old English beallucas, testicles; b. ball¹, from Old English *beall, ball; C. bilberry, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish bolle, round roll; d. balloon, ballot, ballottement, from Italian dialectal baila, ball; e. pall-mall, from Italian palla, ball; f. bale¹, from Old French bale, rolled-up bundle, a-f all from Germanic *ball-. 4. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *bhol-to~. a. bold, from Old English bald, beald, bold; b. bawd, from Old Saxon bald, bold; C. Old High German bald, bold, in personal names: (i) Archibald, from Old High German Erchanbald, “genuine bold” (erchan, genu­ine;see arg-); (ii) Leopold, from Old High German Leutpald, Liutbald, “bold among the people” (liut, people; see leudh-²); d. Balder, from Old Norse ballr, baldr, brave, a-d all from Germanic *baltha~, bold. 5. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-n~. fils², folli­cle, folly, fool, from Latin follis, bellows, inflated ball. 6. Possibly Greek phal(l)aina, whale: baleen. 7. Conceivably from this root (but more likely unrelat­ed) is Greek phellos, cork, cork oak: phellem; phello- derm, phellogen. [Pokorny 3. bhel- 120.] See also de­rivatives bhel-³, bhelgh-, bhlei-, and bhleu-.

||_ bhel-³ To thrive, bloom. Possibly from bhel-².

I. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-yo~, leaf. 1. foil², foliage, folio, folium; cinquefoil, defoliate, exfo­liate, feuilleton, milfoil, perfoliate, portfolio, trefoil, from Latin folium, leaf. 2a. -phyll, phyllo-, -PHYLLOUS; CHERVIL, GILLYFLOWER, PODOPHYLLIN, from Greekphullon, leaf; b. Phyllis (personal name), from Greek phullis, leaf.

II. Extended form *bhle- (contracted from earlier ★ bhleO'-). 1. O-grade form *bhld-. a. Suffixed form *bhld-w-. blow³, from Old English blowan, to flower, from Germanic *blo-w~; b. (i) bloom¹, from Old Norse blom, blomi, flower, blossom; (ii) bloom², from Old English blóma, a hammered ingot of iron (se­mantic development obscure). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic suffixed form *bld-món~; C. blossom, from Old English blóstm, bldstma, flower, blossom, from Germanic suffixed form *blo-s-; d. ferret², flora, Flora, floral, floret, floriated, florid, florin, flo­rist, -florous, flour, flourish, flower; cauliflow­er, DEFLOWER, EFFLORESCE, ENFLEURAGE, FLORIGEN, millefleur, from Latin fids (stem flor-), flower, from Italic suffixed form *fld-s~; e. suffixed form *bhld-to~, possibly in the meaning “swell, gush, spurt” in Ger­manic *blodam, blood, (i) blood, from Old English blod, blood; (ii) bleed, from Old English *bledan, to bleed, from Germanic denominative *blodjan; (Hi) bless, from Old English bloedsian, blétsian, to conse­crate, from Germanic *blodisdn, to treat or hallow with blood. 2. emblements, from Medieval Latin bladum, bladium, produce of the land, grain, from Germanic suffixed form *ble-da-. 3. Suffixed ze­ro-grade form *bhlo-to-. blade, from Old English

bleed, leaf, blade, from Germanic *bladaz. [Pokorny 4. bhel- 122.]

||_ bhel-⁴ To cry out, yell. 1a. bell², from Old English bellan, to bellow, bark, roar, from Germanic * bellan; b. bell’, from Old English belle, a bell; c. bellow, per­haps from Old English belgan, to be enraged, and byl- gan, to bellow; d. bawl, from Middle English baulen, to howl, from a Scandinavian source akin to Icelandic baula, to low. a-d all from Germanic *bell~. 2. belch, from Old English bealcan, *bealcian, to utter, belch forth, perhaps from Germanic *bell-. [Pokorny 6. bhel- 123.] See also extended root bhle-¹.

||_ bheld- To knock, strike. Zero-grade form 'bhld-. bolt’, from Old English bolt, heavy arrow, bolt, from Germanic *bulta~, missile. [Pokorny bheld- 124.]

||_ bhelg- Also bhelk-. A plank, beam. 1. O-grade form *bholg-. a. balk, from Old English balc(a), ridge; b. debauch, from Old French bauch, beam; c. balcony, from Old Italian balcone, scaffold. a-C all from Ger­manic *balkdn-. 2. Suffixed zero-grade variant form *bldk-yo-. fulcrum, from Latin fulcire, to prop up, support. 3. Possibly Greek phalanx, beam, finger bone, line of battle: phalange, phalanx. [Pokorny 5. bhel- 122.]

||_ bhelgh- To swell. (Oldest form *bhelgh-; extension of bhel-².) 1. O-grade form *bholgh~. bellows, belly, from Old English bel(i)g, bcelig, bag, bellows, from Germanic *balgiz. 2. Zero-grade form *bhlgh~. a. bil­low, from Old Norse bylgja, a wave, from Germanic *bulgjan; b. bolster, from Old English bolster, cush­ion, from Germanic *bulgstraz. 3. O-grade form *bholgh-. blagging, budget, bulge, from Latin bulga, leather sack, from Celtic *bolg~. [Pokorny bhelgh- 125.]

||_ bhel- U- To harm. O-grade form *bhol-u-. bale², from Old English bealo, b(e)alu, harm, ruin, bale, from Germanic *balwaz. [Pokorny bheleu- 125.]

||_ bhendh- To bind. 1a. bind;woodbine, from Old English bindan, to bind; b. bindlestiff, from Old High German binten, to bind. Both a and b from Germanic *bindan. 2. bandanna, from Sanskrit bandhati, he ties. 3. O-grade form *bhondh-. a. bend², from Old English bend, band, and Old French bende, band, from Germanic *bandjd; b. bend¹, from Old English bendan, to bend, from Germanic *band- jan; C. (i) band¹, bond, from Old Norse band, band, fetter; (ii) GUM band, from Old High German band, band; (iii) band¹, from Old French bande, bond, tie, link, (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *bandam; (iv) rib­bon, from Old French ruban, ribbon, perhaps from Germanic *bandam (first element unclear). a-C all from Germanic *band~. 4. Suffixed form *bhond-o-. bund¹; cummerbund, from Avestan banda-, bond, fetter. 5. Zero-grade form *bhndh-. a. bund², from Middle High German bunt, league; b. bundle, from Middle Dutch bondel, sheaf of papers, bundle. Both a and b from Germanic *bund-. [Pokorny bhendh-

127. ]

||_ bhengh- Thick, fat. (Oldest form *bhengh-.) Suf­fixed zero-grade form *bhngh-u-. 1. pachycephalo- saur, pachyderm, pachysandra, pachytene, from Greek pakhus, thick, fat. 2. bahuvrihi, from Sanskrit bahu-, much. [Pokorny bhengh- 127.]

||_ bher-¹ To carry; also to bear children. 1a. (i) bear¹, from Old English beran, to carry; (ii) forbear¹, from Old English forberan, to bear, endure (for-, for-; see per¹). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *beran; b. bier, from Old English ber, baer, bier, and Old French biere bier, both from Germanic *bero; C. bore³, from Old Norse bara, wave, billow, from Germanic *ber-. 2a. bairn, from Old English beam, child, from Ger­manic *barnam; b. barrow’, from Old English bear- we, basket, wheelbarrow, from Germanic *barwdn-.

3.     Zero-grade form *bhr~, becoming Germanic 'bur-.

a. burly, from Old English *borlic, excellent, exalted (< “borne up”); b. burden', from Old English byr- then, burden, from Germanic *burthinja-; C. birth, from a source akin to Old Norse burdhr, birth, from Germanic *burthiz; d. birr’, from Old Norse byrr, fa­vorable wind, perhaps from Germanic *burja-. 4. Compound root *bhrenk-, to bring (< *bher- + *enk-, to bring; see nek-³), bring, from Old English bringan, to bring, from Germanic 'brengan. 5. -fer, fertile; AFFERENT, CIRCUMFERENCE, CONFER, DEFER¹, DEFER², DIF­FER, EFFERENT, INFER, OFFER, PREFER, PROFFER, REFER, suffer, transfer, vociferate, from Latin feme, to carry. 6. Celtic *ber-. a. Inverness, after Inverness, from Scottish Gaelic Ionarnis, Inbhirnis, “mouth of the river Ness,” from Old Irish in(d)ber, “a carrying in,” estuary, from Celtic *endo-ber-o- (endo-, in; see en); b. Aberdeen, from Scottish Gaelic, “mouth of the Don river,” from aber, mouth (of a river), from Celtic *ad-ber-o- (*ad-, to; see ad-). 7. Prefixed and suffixed zero-grade form *pro-bhr-o-, “something brought before one” (*pro-, before;see per¹), oppro­brium, from Latin probrum, a reproach. 8. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form 'bhr-tu- in Latin words having to do with chance (? < “a bringing, that which is brought”), a. fortuitous, from Latin fortuitus, happening by chance; b. Fortuna, fortune, from Latin fortüna, chance, good luck, fortune, and Fortüna, goddess of good fortune. 9. Probably length­ened o-grade form *bhor-. ferret¹, furtive, furun­cle;furunculosis, from Latin für, thief. 10. fereto­ry, -phore, -phoresis, -phorous; amphora, anaph­ora, diaphoresis, euphoria, metaphor, periphery, pheromone, telpher, tocopherol, from Greek phe- rein, to carry, with o-grade noun phoros, a carrying. 11. paraphernalia, from Greek pherné, dowry (“something brought by a bride”). 12. sambal, from Sanskrit bharati, he carries, brings. [Pokorny 1. bher-

128. ]

||_ bher-² Also bhera-. To cut, pierce, bore. 1. bore¹, from Old English borian, to bore, from Germanic *buron. 2. barrow³, from Old English bearg, barg, castrated pig, from Germanic suffixed form *barugaz.

3. burin, from French burin, perhaps from Germanic *bor-. 4. Suffixed o-grade form *bhor-a-. foramen; perforate, from Latin forare, to pierce, bore. 5. Per­haps Greek pharunx, throat (< “a cutting, cleft, pas­sage”):pharynx. 6. Dukhobor, from Russian borof, to overcome, from Slavic *bor-, to fight, overcome (also in Russian personal name Boris). [Pokorny 3. bher- 133.] See also extension bhreu-.

||_ bher-³ Bright, brown. 1. Suffixed variant form *bhrü-no-, a. brown, from Old English brün, brown;

b. bruin, from Middle Dutch bruun; C. Bruno (per­sonal name), from Old High German Bruno, from brun, brown; d. brunet, burnet, burnish, from Old French brun, shining, brown, a-d all from Germanic *brüna-, brown. 2. Reduplicated form *bhibhru-, *bhebhru-, “the brown animal,” beaver, beaver¹, from Old English be(o)for, beaver, from Germanic *bebruz. 3a. bear², from Old English bera, bear; b. Bernard (personal name), from German Bernhard, “bold bear,” from Old High German hero, bear (hart, hard, stern, bold; see kar-¹). Both a and b from Germanic *bero, “the brown animal,” bear. 4. berserker, from Old Norse bjórn, bear, from Germanic *bernuz. [Pokorny 5. bher- 136.]

||_ bher-⁴ To cook, bake. Extended root form *bhrig-. FRICANDEAU, FRICASSEE, FRISÉ, FRIT, FRITTATA, FRITTER², FRIZZ¹, FRY¹; CUCHIFRITO, SOFRITO, SOFFRITTO, from Latin frigere, to roast, fry. [Pokorny 6. bher- 137.]

||_ bherdh- To cut. 1. Zero-grade form *bhrdh-. a. board; starboard, from Old English bord, board; b. smorgasbord, from Old Norse bordh, board, table; C. bordello, border, from Old French borde, hut, and bort, border. a-C all from Germanic *burdam, plank,

board, table. 2. Possibly Latin forfex, a pair of scissors: forficate. [Pokorny bheredh- 138.]

||_ bherag- To shine; bright, white. (Oldest form ^rbherog-.} 1a. bright, from Old English beorht, bright; b. Old High German beraht, bright, in per­sonal names (where it is often reduced to ber(h)t): (i) Albert, from Old High German Adalbert, “noble bright” (adal, noble; see at-al-); (ii) Bertha, from Old High German Beratha, “the bright one”; (Hi) Gil­bert, from Old High German Giselberht, “bright hos­tage” (gisel, pledge, hostage); (iv) Herbert, from Old High German Heriberht, “bright army” (heri, army; see koro-); (v) Old High German Hrodebert (see kar-²); c. Camembert, after Camembert (French vil­lage), from Medieval Latin Campus Maimberti, “field of Maimbert” (personal name), from West Germanic * Magín-berht-, “bright with strength” (*magin-, strength, from Germanic *maginam; see magh-¹). a-C from Germanic *berhta~, bright. 2. “The white tree,” the birch (also the ash), a. birch, birk, from Old English birc(e), birch, from Germanic *birkjon-; b. probably suffixed zero-grade form *bhrag-s~. frax- inella, from Latin fraxinus, ash tree. [Pokorny bherog- 139.]

||_ bherdk- To shine, glitter. A by-form of bherag-. (Oldest form *bherok-.) Variant form *bhrek-, possible root of various Germanic forms. 1. braid;upbraid, from Old English bregdan, to move quickly, weave, throw, braid, from Germanic *bregdan, to move jerkily (< “to shimmer”). 2. bridle, from Old English bridel, bridle, from derivative West Germanic *brigdila-, bridle (referring to the movements of a horse’s head).

3. brae, from Old Norse bra, eyelash, from Germanic *brehwo, eyelid, eyelash. 4. bream¹, from Old French bre(s)me, from West Germanic *bresmo, a bream, from Germanic *breh(w)an, to shine. [Pokorny bherok- 141.]

||_ [bherg- To make noise. Hypothetical base of Ger­manic strong verb *berkan. bark¹, birkie, from Old English beorcan, to bark, from Germanic "berkan. [Pokorny bhereg- 138.]]

||_ bhergh-¹ To hide, protect. (Oldest form *bhergh-.) 1a. Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg- (see k^wel-¹); b. Germanic compound *sker-berg- (see (s)ker-¹). Both a and b from Germanic *bergan, to protect. 2. Zero-grade form *bhrgh~. a. bury, from Old English byrgan, to bury, from Germanic *burgjan; b. burial, from Old English byrgels, burial, from Germanic de­rivative *burgish~. 3a. borrow, from Old English bor- gian, to borrow, from Germanic *borgen, to pledge, lend, borrow; b. bargain, from Old French bargaigni- er, to haggle, from Germanic derivative *borganjan. [Pokorny bhergh- 145.]

||_ bhergh-² High; with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts. (Oldest form *bhergh-.) 1a. barrow², from Old English beorg, hill; b. iceberg, from Middle Dutch bergh, mountain; c. inselberg, from Old High German berg, mountain; d. Germanic compound *harja-bergaz (see koro-). a-d all from Germanic *bergaz, hill, mountain. 2. belfry, from Old French berfroi, tower, from Germanic compound *berg- frithu-, “high place of safety,” tower (*frithu~, peace, safety; see prT-). 3. Zero-grade form *bhrgh-. a. BOR­OUGH, burg, from Old English burg, burh, byrig, (for­tified) town, also becoming the Modern English suffix -bury in place names such as Canterbury; b. burgomaster, from Middle Dutch burch, town; c. BOURG, BOURGEOIS, BURGESS, BURGLAR; FAUBOURG, from Late Latin burgus, fortified place, and Old French burg, borough; d. burgher, from Old High German burgari, townsman, from Germanic compound *burg-warón-, “city protector” (*warón-, protector; see wer-⁵). a-d all from Germanic *burgs, hill-fort.

4.    Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrgh-nt-, high, mighty.

a. Burgundy, from Medieval Latin Burgundia, akin to Late Latin Burgundidnes, “highlanders” or “mighty ones” (Germanic tribal name), from Germanic *bur- gund-; b. Bridget (personal name), from Old Irish Brigit, name of a goddess, from Celtic *Briganti. 5. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhrgh-to-. force, FORT, FORTALICE, FORTE¹, FORTE², FORTIS, FORTISSIMO, FORTITUDE, FORTRESS; COMFORT, DEFORCE, EFFORT, EN­FORCE, FORTIFY, PIANOFORTE, REINFORCE, from Latin fortis, strong (but this is also possibly from dher-²). [Pokorny bheregh- 140.]

||_ bhers- Quick, festinate, from Latin festinare, to has­ten, probably from festinus (< *fers-ti-), quick, in a hurry. [Pokorny bheres- 143.]

||_ bhes-¹ To rub. 1. Zero-grade form *bhs-amadho- (in Greek psamathos, sand), with unclear suffix, reduced to *samadho- (in Greek amathos, sand, and in Ger­manic). sand, from Old English sand, from Germanic *sam(a)dam, Gandam. 2. Suffixed extended ze­ro-grade form *(bh)sa-dhlo-. sabulous, from Latin sabulum, coarse sand. 3. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *bhs-a-. a. palimpsest, from Greek psen, to rub, scrape (but more likely of uncertain origin); b. pse- phology, from Greek psephos, ballot, pebble (but more likely of uncertain origin). 4. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *bhs-ilo-. epsilon, psilomelane, upsi­lon, from Greek psilos, smooth, simple (but more likely of uncertain origin). [Pokorny 1. bhes- 145.]

||_ bhes-² To breathe. Probably imitative. Zero-grade form *bhs-. psyche¹, psychic, psycho-;metempsycho­sis, from Greek psukhe, spirit, soul, from psukhein (< *bhs-u-kh-), to breathe. [Pokorny 2. bhes- 146.]

||_ bheudh- To be aware, to make aware. 1a. bid, from Old English beodan, to proclaim; b. forbid, from Old English forbeodan, to forbid; C. verboten, from Old High German farbiotan, to forbid. a-C all from Ger­manic *(for)beudan (*for, before; see per¹). 2. bode¹, from Old English bodian, to announce, from boda, messenger, from Germanic *buddn-. 3. beadle, from Old English bydel, herald, messenger, and Old High German butil, herald, both from Germanic *budilaz, herald. 4. ombudsman, from Old Norse bodh, com­mand, from Germanic *budam. 5. Buddha²;bodhi- sattva, bo tree, from Sanskrit bodhati, he awakes, is enlightened, becomes aware, and bodhih, perfect knowledge. [Pokorny bheudh- 150.]

||_ bheue- Also bheu-. To be, exist, grow.

I. Extended forms *bhwiy(o)-, *bhwi-. 1. be; fore­bear, from Old English beon, to be, from Germanic *biju, I am, will be. 2. fiat, from Latin fieri, to be­come. 3. Possibly suffixed form *bhwi-lyo-, seen by some as the source of Latin filius, son, but this is more likely from dhe(i)-.

II. Lengthened o-grade form *bhow~. 1. bondage, bound⁴; bustle¹, husband, from Old Norse bua, to live, prepare, and buask, to make oneself ready (-sk, reflexive suffix; see s(w)e-). 2. Bauhaus, from Old High German buan, to dwell. 3. booth, from Middle English bothe, market stall, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Danish both, dwelling, stall. 1-3 all from Germanic *bdwan.

III. Zero-grade form *bhu-. 1a. build, from Old English byldan, to build, from bold, dwelling, house, from Germanic *buthlam; b. boodle, from Middle Dutch bodel, riches, property, from alternate Ger­manic form *bdthlam. 2. physic, physics, physio-, PHYSIQUE, -PHYTE, PHYTO-, PHYTON; APOPHYSIS, DIAPHY­SIS, DIPHYODONT, EPIPHYSIS, EUPHUISM, HYPOPHYSIS, IMP, MONOPHYSITE, NEOPHYTE, PERIPHYTON, SYMPHYSIS, TRA- cheophyte, from Greek phuein, to bring forth, make grow, phutos, phuton, a plant, and phusis, growth, na­ture. 3. Suffixed form *bhu-ta-. a. eisteddfod, from Welsh bod, to be; b. bothy, from Old Irish both, a hut.

4. Suffixed form *bhu-tu-. future, from Latin futu- rus, “that is to be,” future.

IV. Zero-grade form *bhü- (< *bhuo~). 1a. bower¹, from Old English bür, “dwelling space,” bower, room; b. neighbor, from Old English gebür, dweller (ge-, collective prefix; see kom); c. Boer, boor, from Middle Dutch gheboer, ghebuer, peasant, a-c all from Germanic *büram, dweller, especially farmer. 2. byre, from Old English byre, stall, hut, from Germanic *bürjam, dwelling. 3. bylaw, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse byr, settlement, from Ger­manic *büwi-, 4. Suffixed form *bhu-lo-. phyle, phyletic, phylum; phylogeny, from Greek phülon, tribe, class, race, and phüle, tribe, clan.

V. Zero-grade reduced suffixal form *-bhw-, in Latin compounds. 1. Latin dubius, doubtful, and dubitäre, to doubt, from *du-bhw-io- (see dwo-). 2. Latin probus, upright, from *pro-bhw-o-, “growing well or straightforward” (see per¹). 3. Latin superbus, superior, proud, from *super-bhw-o-, “being above” (see uper).

VI. Possibly Germanic *baumaz (and *bagmaz), tree (? < “growing thing”). 1. beam, from Old English beam, tree, beam. 2. boom², from Middle Dutch boom, tree. 3. bumpkin¹, bumpkin², from Flemish boom, tree. [Pokorny bheu- 146.]

||_ bheug-¹ To flee. 1. Zero-grade form *bhug-. fuga­cious, fugitive; centrifugal, FEVERFEW, REFUGE, RE­FUGIUM, subterfuge, from Latin fugere, to flee. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhug-a-. a. -fuge, fugue; febrifuge, from Latin fuga, flight, and derived verb fugäre, to drive away; b. apophyge, from Greek phuge, flight. [Pokorny 1. bheug- 152.]

||_ bheug-² To enjoy. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhu-n-g-. function, fungible, defunct, perfuncto­ry, from Latin fungi, to discharge, perform. [Pokorny

4.     bheug- 153.]

||_ bheug-³ To bend; with derivatives referring to bent, pliable, or curved objects.

I. Variant form *bheugh- in Germanic *beug-. 1a. bee², from Old English beag, a ring; b. bagel, from Old High German boug, a ring. Both a and b from Germanic *baugaz. 2a. bow³;akimbo, from Old Eng­lish boga, a bow, arch; b. Germanic compound *eli- no-bugon- (see el-¹); C. bow¹, from a source akin to Middle Low German boog, bow of a boat; d. bowline, bowsprit, from Middle Low German böch, bow of a boat, a-d all from Germanic *bugön-. 3. bow², buxom, from Old English bügan, to bend, from Ger­manic bügan. 4. bail³, from Middle English beil, a handle, perhaps from Old English *begel or from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish *böghil, both from Germanic *baugil-. 5. bight, from Old English byht, a bend, angle, from Germanic *buhtiz.

II. bog, from Scottish and Irish Gaelic bog, soft, from Celtic *buggo~, “flexible.” [Pokorny 3. bheug- 152.]

||_ bhläd- To worship. Suffixed form *bhlad-(s)men~. Flamen, from Latin flämen, priest (of a particular de­ity). [In Pokorny bhlag-men- 154.]

bhläg- To strike. (Oldest form *bhleo2g-, colored to *bhlad2g~; zero-grade *bhlag- from *bhlo2g--) 1- bat², from Middle English bakke, probably from a Scandi­navian source akin to Old Swedish (natt-)backa, (night) bat, perhaps from a form *blacka continued in Icelandic (ledhr-)blaka, “(leather-)f lütterer,” bat, from Germanic *blak~. 2. flagellate, flagellum, flail, flog, from Latin flagrum, a whip (diminutive flagellum, little whip). 3. flagitious, from Latin flägitäre, to demand importunately. [Pokorny bhlag- 154.]

||_ bhle-¹ To howl. (Probably contracted from earlier *bhles_l-, extended from bhe,-⁴.) 1a. bleat, from Old English blcetan, to bleat; b. blare, from Middle Eng­lish bleren, to roar. Both a and b from Germanic *ble~. 2. feeble, from Latin flere, to weep. [Pokorny bhle- 154.]

||_ bhle-² To blow. (Contracted from earlier ★ bhle^-, or possibly lengthened grade             from alternative

root *bhleo₂-. Possibly identical to bhel-³ II *bhle- above.) 1. blow¹, from Old English blawan, to blow, from Germanic suffixed form *ble-w-. 2a. BLADDER, from Old English bliedre, blister, bladder; b. bi ather, from Old Norse bladhra (noun), bladder, and bladhra (verb), to prattle. Both a and b from Germanic suf­fixed form "bledram, “something blown up.” 3a. blast, from Old English bluest, a blowing, blast; b. isinglass, from Middle Dutch blas(e), a bladder; C. blasé, blaze³, from Middle Dutch bldsen, to blow up, swell. a-C all from Germanic extended form *bles~. 4. Zero-grade form *bhb- (> *bhla-). flabellum, flag­eolet, flatulent, flatus, flavor; afflatus, con­flate, deflate, inflate, insufflate, souffle, from Latin flare, to blow. [In Pokorny 3. bhel- 120.]

||_ bhlei- To blow, swell. Extension of bhel-². 1. BLAIN, from Old English blegen, a boil, blister, from Ger­manic *blajjinón-, a swelling. 2. Perhaps in the Ger­manic source of Old French blestre, a blister (akin to Old Norse blàstr, blister, and Middle Dutch blyster, blister): blister. [Pokorny 2. bhlei- 156.]

||_ bhleu- To swell, well up, overflow. Extension of bhel-². 1. Possibly Germanic *blaut-. bloat, from Old Norse blautr, soft, wet. 2. Extended form *bhleug^w-. fluctuate, fluent, fluid, flume, fluor, FLUORO-, FLUSH², FLUVIAL, FLUX; AFFLUENT, CONFLUENT, EFFLUEN T, EFFLUVIUM, EFFLUX, FLUORIDE, FLUVIOMARINE, INFLUENCE, INFLUENZA, INFLUX, MELLIFLUOUS, REFLUX, solifluction, superfluous, from Latin fluere, to flow, and -fluus, flowing. 3. Zero-grade form 'bhlu-. phlyctena, from Greek phluein, phluzein, to boil over. 4. Possibly Greek phloos, phloios, tree bark (< “swell­ing with growth”): phloem. [Pokorny bhleu- 158.]

||_ bhlig- To strike, afflict, conflict, inflict, profli­gate, from Latin fltgere, to strike. [Pokorny bhlig- 160.] '

||_ bhoso- Naked. 1. bare¹, from Old English beer, bare.

2.    ballast, from Old Swedish and Old Danish bar, bare. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic 'baza-. [Pokorny bhoso-s 163.]

||_ bhrag- To smell. 1. brach, from Old High German bracc(h)o, dog that hunts game by scent, from Ger­manic *brak-. 2. Suffixed form *bhrag-ro-. flair, fra­grant, from Latin fragrare, to smell. [Pokorny bhrag- 163.]

||_ bhragh-men- Form, ritual form. (Oldest form 'bhragh-men-.) Brahma¹, Brahman, Brahmin, from Sanskrit brahma (stem brahman-), prayer, ritual for­mulation, and derivative brahma (stem brahman-), priest (“the one of the prayer”). [Pokorny bhlagh- men- 154.]

bhràter- Brother, male agnate. 1a. brother, from Old English bróthor, brother; b. bully¹, from Middle Dutch broeder, brother. Both a and b from Germanic 'bróthar. 2. Fra, fraternal, fraternity, fraternize, friar; confrere, fratricide, from Latin fràter, broth­er. 3. phratry, from Greek phrdter, fellow member of a clan. 4. pal, from Sanskrit bhrdta (stem bhratar-), brother. [Pokorny bhràter- 163.]

||_ bhreg- To break. 1a. break, from Old English brecan, to break; b. breach, from Old English brèc, a break­ing; C. brash², breccia, from Italian breccia, breccia, rubble, breach in a wall, from Old High German *brehha, from brehhan, to break; d. bray², from Old French breier, to break; e. brioche, from Old French brier, dialectal variant of broyer, to knead, a-e all from Germanic *brekan. 2. bracken, brake⁴, from Middle English brake(n), bracken, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse 'brakni, un­dergrowth; b. brake³, from Middle Low German brake, thicket. Both a and b from Germanic *brak-, bushes (<“that which impedes motion”). 3. brake²,

from Middle Low German brake, flax brake, from Germanic *brak-, crushing instruments. 4. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhr-n-g-. fractal, fracted, frac­tion, FRACTIOUS, FRACTURE, FRAGILE, FRAGMENT, FRAIL¹, frangible; anfractuous, chamfer, defray, diffrac­tion, INFRACT, INFRANGIBLE, INFRINGE, IRREFRANGIBLE, OSSIFRAGE, REFRACT, REFRAIN², REFRINGENT, SASSAFRAS, saxifrage, septifragal, from Latin frangere, to break. 5a. suffragan, suffrage, from Latin suffragium, the right to vote, from suffragan, to vote for (? < “to use a broken piece of tile as a ballot”); b. irrefragable, from Latin refragari, to vote against. [Pokorny 1. bhreg- 165 (but g not on good evidence).]

||_ bhreia- To cut, break. Zero-grade *bhri- (< *bhrid-).

1. Possibly Latin fricare (> French frotter), to rub: FRAY², FRICATIVE, FRICTION, FROTTAGE; AFFRICATE, DEN­TIFRICE. 2. Possibly Latin friare, to crumble: friable.

3. brisance; debris, from Vulgar Latin *brisare (> Old French brisier, to break), of Celtic origin. [Pokorny bhrei- 166.]

||_ bhrek^w- To cram together. 1. Probably Latin frequens, frequent, crowded: frequent. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrk^w-yo-. a. farce, farci, farcy; infarct, from Latin farcire, to cram, stuff; b. diaphragm, phragmites, from Greek phrassein, to fence in, en­close, block up. [Pokorny bharek*- 110.]

||_ bhrem-¹ To growl. 1. fremitus, from Latin fremere, to growl, roar. 2. Perhaps o-grade variant form *brom-. brontosaur, from Greek bronte, thunder. [Pokorny 2. bherem- 142.]

||_ bhrem-² To project; a point, spike; an edge. 1a. broom, from Old English brom, broom; b. bramble, from Old English diminutive bremel, braembel, bram­ble. Both a and b from Germanic *brema-, name of prickly shrubs. 2a. brim, from Middle English brimme, edge; b. berm, from Middle Dutch berme, barm, edge of a dike. Both a and b from Germanic *berm-, *brem-. [Pokorny 1. bherem- 142.]

||_ bhres- To burst, burst, from Old English berstan, to burst, from Germanic *brest-. [Pokorny bhres- 169.]

||_ bhreu- Also bhreua-. To cut, break up. Extension of bher-².

I. Basic form *bhreu-. 1. Suffixed form *bhreu-d~. brittle, from Middle English britel, brittle, from Ger­manic *brutila~, brittle, from *breutan, to break up.

2. Suffixed form *bhreu-t-. brothel, from Old Eng­lish breothan, to deteriorate, from Germanic *breu- than, to be broken up.

II. Extended zero-grade form *bhrus- (< *bhru3s-). 1. bruise, partly from Old English brysan, to crush, pound (from Germanic *brusjan) and partly from Old North French bruisier, to crush (from Gaulish *brus-). 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrus-to-. frus­tule, frustum, from Latin frustum, piece. [Pokorny 1. bhr$u- 169, 2. bhreu-s-171.}

||_ bhreua- Also bhreu-. To boil, bubble, effervesce, burn; with derivatives referring to cooking and brew­ing. (Oldest form *bhreu3_x-; variant [metathesized] form ★ bhrespi-.)

I. 1. brew, from Old English breowan, to brew, from Germanic *breuwan, to brew. 2. bread, from Old English bread, piece of food, bread, from Ger­manic *braudam, (cooked) food, (leavened) bread. 3a. blaff, broth, from Old English broth, broth; b. brewis, broil²; embroil, imbroglio, from Vulgar Latin *brodum, broth. Both a and b from Germanic *brudam, broth.

II. Variant form *bhre- (contracted from earlier ★ bhrea^-). Germanic extended form *bred- in verb *bredan, to warm. 1 a. brood, from Old English brod, offspring, brood; b. breed, from Old English bredan, to beget or cherish offspring, breed, from Germanic denominative *brddjan, to rear young. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *brod-o, “a warming,”

hatching, rearing of young. 2a. Bratwurst, Sauer­braten, from Old High German brät, bräto, roast meat; b. brawn, from Old French braon, meat. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *bred-ön-, roast flesh.

III.  Variant form *bhres-. 1. braise, braze², brazier², breeze², bresaola, from Old French brese, burning coal, ember. 2. braciola, from Italian dialec­tal bras’a, burning coal. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *bres-.

IV. Reduced form *bher-, especially in derivatives referring to fermentation. 1a. Suffixed form Ther­men-, yeast, barm, barmy, from Old English beorma, yeast, from Germanic *bermön-; b. further suffixed form *bhermen-to~. ferment, from Latin fermentum, yeast. 2. Extended form *bherw-. fervent, fervid, fervor;defervescence, effervesce, from Latin fer­vere, to be boiling or fermenting.

V. As a very archaic word for a spring. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhru-n(e)n-. bourn¹, burn², from Old English burn, burna, spring, stream, from Ger­manic *brunnon-. 2. Suffixed form *bhrew-r. phreat­ic, from Greek phrear, spring. [Pokorny bh(e)reu- 143, 2. bher- 132.]

||_ bhreus- To swell. 1. Suffixed form *bhreus-t-. breast, from Old English breost, breast, from Germanic *breustam, “swelling,” breast. 2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrus-t-. browse, from Old French broust, brost, shoot, twig, from Germanic *brust-, bud, shoot.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhrus-k-. brisket, from Middle English brusket, breast of an animal, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish bryske, breast of an animal. [Pokorny 1. bhreu-s- 170.]

bhrü- Eyebrow. (Contracted from *bhru3-.) 1. brow, from Old English brü-, eyebrow, eyelid, eyelash, from Germanic *brüs. 2. Possibly in the sense of a beam of wood, and perhaps a log bridge, bridge¹, from Old English brycg(e), bridge, from Germanic *brugjo (with cognates in Celtic and Slavic). [Pokorny 1. bhrü- 172, 2. bhrü- 173.]

bhrüg- Agricultural produce; also to enjoy (results, produce). Italic and Germanic root. 1. brook², from Old English brücan, to enjoy, use, from Germanic *brükan. 2. frugal;frugivorous, from Latin früx (stem früg-), fruit. 3. Suffixed form *bhrüg-wo-. FRUIT, FRUITION, FRUMENTACEOUS, FRUMENTY;FRUCTIFY, infructescence, from Latin frui, to enjoy, with deriv­atives fru men tum (< *früg-smentom), grain, produce, and früctus, enjoyment, produce, results. [Pokorny bhrüg- 173.]

||_ bhudh- Also budh-. Bottom, base. (The precise pre­forms of the words listed below are obscure.) 1. bot­tom, from Old English botm, bottom, from Germanic *butmaz. 2. bumboat, from Middle Dutch bodem, (ship’s) bottom, from Germanic *buthmaz. 3. fond², FOUND¹, FOUNDER, FUND, FUNDAMENT, FUNDUS; LATI­FUNDIUM, profound, from Latin fundus, bottom, base. 4. Suffixed variant form *budh-o-. abyss, from Greek buthos, bussos, bottom of the sea. [Pokorny bhudh-m(e)n 174.] Compare dheub-.

||_ bhugo- Male animal of various kinds; stag, ram, he-goat. (Oldest form *bhugo~.) 1a. buck¹, from Old English buc, bucca, stag, he-goat; b. blesbok, bonte- bok, springbok, steenbok, from Middle Dutch boc, bok, buck; c. gemsbok, from Old High German boc, buck. a-C all from Germanic *bukkaz (possibly bor­rowed from the Celtic form in 2 below). 2. butcher, from Old French boc, buck, from Celtic *bukkos, he-goat. [Pokorny bhügo-s 174.]

||_ [bräk- Trousers. A northern European word, found only in Celtic and Germanic. 1. breech, breeks, brogue¹, from Old English bröc (plural brec), from Germanic *brök-, 2. bracket, brail, from Latin bräca, trousers (plural bräcae), from Gaulish *bräka.]

||_ [bursa Skin, hide. Greek noun of unknown origin. BOLSON, BOURSE, BURSA, BURSAR, BURSE, PURSE; DIS­BURSE, REIMBURSE, SPORRAN.]

||_ [busk- A bush. Germanic root, possibly connected with bheus-. 1. BOSCAGE, BOUQUET, BOUQUETIER, from Old French bosc, forest. 2. bush^{[*] [†]} ;hautboy, oboe, from Old French bois, wood. 3. busk¹, from Italian busco, splinter. 4. bosquet, from Old Italian bosco, wood. 5. ambuscade, ambush, from Late Latin buscus, forest.]

||_ [career Enclosure, prison, barrier. Latin noun, prob­ably borrowed from an unidentified source. 1. incar­cerate, from Latin career (representing reduplicated form ★ kar-kr-o-). 2. cancel, chancel, chancellor, from Latin cancer, lattice (representing a dissimilated form *kankro-).]

||_ [caupo Small trader. Latin noun of unknown origin, borrowed early into Germanic, cheap;chap², chap­man, from Old English ceap, trade, from Germanic ★ kaupon-.]

||_ [cura Care. Latin noun of unknown origin;oldest form, Archaic Latin coisa-. Derived verb curare, to care for. curate¹, curator, cure, curette, curio, cu­rious; ACCURATE, ASSURE, ENSURE, INSURE, MANICURE, PEDICURE, POCOCURANTE, PROCTOR, PROCURATOR, PRO­CURE, PROXY, SCOUR¹, SECURE, SINECURE, SURE.]

||_ da- To divide. (Oldest form *dea₂-, colored to ★ dao₂-> contracted to *dd-.)

I.    Suffixed form ★ da-mo-, perhaps “division of so­ciety.” DEME, DEMOS, DEMOTIC; DEMAGOGUE, DEMIURGE, DEMOCRACY, DEMOGRAPHY, ENDEMIC, EPIDEMIC, PAN­DEMIC, from Greek demos, people, land.

II.    Extended form *dai- (contracted from earlier ★ dao₂i-, colored from oldest form *dea₂z-), with ze­ro-grade *dz- (< *dio-, metathesized from ★ doi-). 1. Root form *dai~. geodesy, from Greek daiesthai, to divide. 2. Suffixed form ★ dai-mon-, divider, provider. daimon, demon, from Greek daimon, divinity. 3. Suf­fixed zero-grade form *di-ti-. a. tide¹; eventide, from Old English tid, time, season; b. tide², from Old English denominative tidan, to happen (< “to occur in time”); C. tiding, from Old Norse tidhr, occurring; d. Yahrzeit, Zeitgeist, from Old High German zit, time, a-d all from Germanic ★ tidiz, division of time.

4.     Suffixed zero-grade form ★ di-mon-. time, from Old English tima, time, period, from Germanic *fz- mon-. [Pokorny da : do- 175.] See also extension dail-.

||_ dail- To divide. Northern Indo-European root extend­ed from *da(o)i- (see da-). 1. deal¹, from Old Eng­lish dadan, to share, from Germanic ★ dailjan. 2a. dole¹, from Old English dal, portion, lot; b. filler², from Old High (ierman teil, part. Both a and b from Germanic *dailaz. 3. ordeal, from Old English ordal, trial by ordeal, from Germanic prefixed form ★ uz-dailjam, “a portioning out,” judgment (*uz-, out; see lid-). 4. firkin, from Middle Dutch deel, part, from Germanic ★ dailiz. [In Pokorny da : do- 175.]

||_ daiwer- Husband’s brother, levirate, from Litin levir, husband’s brother (probably a dialect borrow­ing). [Pokorny daiuer 179.]

||_ dakru- Tear. (Oldest form ★ dakru-.) 1a. tear², from Old English tear, tehher, tear; b. train oil, from Mid­dle Dutch trane, tear, drop. Both a and b from Germanic *tahr-, ★ tagr-. 2. Suffixed form ★ dak­ru-ma-. lachrymal, from Latin lacrima (Archaic Latin dacruma), tear. [Pokorny dakru- 179.]