The American Heritage Dictionary Indo-European Roots Appendix

For instructions on how to use this appendix, please refer to the Guide to the Indo-European Roots Appendix.

r001_ ‌ ‌ ‌ ad-
To, near, at.

1. at ; atone , twit , from Old English æt, near, by, at;
2. ado , from Old Norse at. Both a and b from Germanic *at.
ad- , -ad ; adjuvant , aid , amount , paramount , from Latin ad, ad‑, to, toward.
Celtic *ad‑, to, at, in compound *to-ad-ni-sed‑ (see sed- ).

||[Pokorny 1. ad‑ 3.]

r002_ ‌ ‌ ag-
To drive, draw, move. Oldest form *ag̑‑, becoming *ag‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include agony , ambiguous , demagogue , essay , and squat.

act , active , actor , actual , actuary , actuate , agendum , agent , agile , agitate ; allege , ambage , ambiguous , assay , cache , coagulum , cogent , essay , exact , exacta , examine , exigent , exiguous , fumigate , fustigate , intransigent , 哌 levigate , litigate , navigate , objurgate , prodigal , redact , retroactive , squat , transact , variegate , from Latin agere, to do, act, drive, conduct, lead, weigh.
-agogue , agony ; anagoge , antagonize , choragus , demagogue , epact , glucagon , hypnagogic , mystagogue , pedagogue , protagonist , stratagem , synagogue , from Greek agein, to drive, lead, weigh.
Suffixed form *ag-to‑. ambassador , embassage , embassy , from Latin ambactus, servant, from Celtic *amb(i)-ag-to‑, "one who goes around" (*ambi, around; see ambhi ).
Suffixed form *ag-ti‑, whence adjective *ag-ty-o‑, "weighty." axiom ; axiology , chronaxie , from Greek axios, worth, worthy, of like value, weighing as much.
Possibly suffixed form *ag-ro‑, driving, pursuing, grabbing. pellagra , podagra , from Greek agrā, a seizing.
O-grade suffixed form *og-mo‑, furrow, track, metaphorically "incised line." ogham , from Old Irish Ogma (from Celtic *Ogmios), name of a Celtic god and traditional inventor of the ogham alphabet.

||[Pokorny ag̑‑ 4.]
See also derivative agro- .

r003_ ‌ ‌ agh-
A day (considered as a span of time). Oldest form *ag̑h‑, becoming *agh‑ in centum languages.

day ; daisy , today , from Old English dæg, day;
Landtag , from Old High German tag, day;
dawn , from Old English denominative dagian, to dawn. a-c all from Germanic *dagaz (with initial d‑ of obscure origin), day.

||[Pokorny ā̆g̑her‑ 7.]

r004_ ‌ ‌ agro-
Field. Probably a derivative of ag- . Oldest form *ag̑ro‑, becoming *agro‑ in centum languages.

acre , from Old English æcer, field, acre, from Germanic *akraz.
aerie , agrarian ; agriculture , peregrine , pilgrim , from Latin ager (genitive agrī), earlier *agros, district, property, field.
agria , agro- ; agrostology , onager , stavesacre , from Greek agros, field, and agrios, wild.

|| ||[Pokorny ag̑‑ 4.]

r005_ ‌ ‌ aik-
To be master of, possess. Oldest form *h₂eik̑‑, colored to *h₂aik̑‑, becoming *aik̑‑ in satem languages and *aik‑ in centum languages.

ought ¹, owe , from Old English āgan, to possess, from Germanic *aigan, to possess.
1. own , from Old English āgen, one's own;
2. eigenvalue , eigenvector , from Old High German eigan, one's own. Both a and b from Germanic participial form *aiganaz, possessed, owned.
fraught , freight , from Middle Low German and Middle Dutch vrecht, vracht, "earnings," hire for a ship, freight, from Germanic prefixed form *fra-aihtiz, absolute possession, property (*fra‑, intensive prefix; see per ¹).
Reduplicated zero-grade (perfect) form *h₂e-h₂ik‑, remade to *h₂i-h₂ik‑ (> *īk‑). Ganesh , from Sanskrit īṣṭe, he rules over.

||[Pokorny ēik‑ 298.]

r006_ ‌ ‌ aim-
Copy. Oldest form *h₂eim‑, colored to *h₂aim‑.

Suffixed full-grade form *aim-olo‑. emulate , emulous , from Latin aemulus, emulous.
Zero-grade form *h₂im‑.
1. 哌 imitate ; inimitable , from Latin imitāre, to imitate, from suffixed form *im-eto‑;
2. image , imagine , imago , from Latin imāgō, image.

||[Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite ḫimma‑, ritual substitute.]

r007_ ‌ ‌ ais-
To wish, desire.

: Oldest form *h₂eis‑, colored to *h₂ais‑. Suffixed form *ais-sk‑. ask , from Old English āscian, ācsian, to ask, seek, from Germanic *aiskōn.

||[Pokorny 1. ais‑ 16.]

r008_ ‌ ‌ aiw-
Also ayu-.
Vital force, life, long life, eternity; also "endowed with the acme of vital force, young." Oldest forms *h₂eiw‑, *h₂eyu‑, colored to *h₂aiw‑, *h₂ayu‑.
Derivatives include no ¹, ever , medieval , age , and eon.

1. no ¹, from Old English ā, ever;
2. aught ¹, from Old English āwiht, āuht, anything, "ever a creature";
3. ever ; every , never , from Old English ǣfre (second element obscure), ever;
4. aye ²; nay , from Old Norse ei, ever. a, c, and d all from extended Germanic form *aiwi; b from Germanic *aiwi + *wihti, "ever a thing, anything" (*wihti‑, thing; see wekti- ).
Suffixed form *aiw-ā‑. echt , from Middle Low German echte, true, legitimate, akin to Old High German ēohaft, according to custom, from ēwa, custom, right (< "what is eternal, what endures") + -haft, having (a characteristic) (see kap- ).
1. Suffixed form *aiw-o‑. coeval , longevity , medieval , primeval , from Latin aevum, age, eternity;
2. further suffixed form *aiwo-tā(ti)‑. age ; coetaneous , from Latin aetās (stem aetāti‑), age;
3. further suffixed form *aiwo-t-erno‑. eternal , eterne , eternity ; sempiternal , from Latin aeternus, eternal.
Suffixed form *aiw-en‑. eon , from Greek aiōn, age, vital force.
Zero-grade form *yu‑ (earlier *h₂yu‑) in compound *h₂yu-g^wih₃-es‑, "having a vigorous life" (*g^wih₃-es‑, life; see g^wei- ). hygiene , from Greek hugiēs, healthy.
O-grade form *oyu‑ (earlier *h₂oyu‑).
1. utopia , from Greek ou, not, variant of ouk, probably from a pre-Greek phrase *(ne) oyu (k^wid), "(not on your) life" (ne, not, and *k^wid, finite pronoun used as emphasizing particle; see ne , k^wo- );
2. Ayurveda , from Sanskrit āyuḥ, life, health, from suffixed form *oyu-s‑.

||[Pokorny aiu̯‑ 17.]
See also derivative yeu- .

r009_ ‌ ‌ ak-
Sharp. Oldest form *h₂ek̑‑, colored to *h₂ak̑‑, becoming *ak̑‑ in satem languages and *ak‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include acute , hammer , heaven , eager ¹, vinegar , acid , and oxygen.

Suffixed form *ak-yā‑.
1. edge ; selvage , from Old English ecg, sharp side, from Germanic *agjō;
2. egg ², from Old Norse eggja, to incite, goad, from Germanic *agjan.
Suffixed form *ak-u‑.
1. ear ², from Old English æhher, ēar, spike, ear of grain, from Germanic *ahuz‑;
2. acicula , acuity , aculeate , acumen , acupuncture , acute , aglet , ague , eglantine , from Latin acus, needle;
3. acerose , from Latin acus, chaff.
Suffixed form *ak-i‑. acidanthera , from Greek akis, needle.
Suffixed form *ak-men‑, stone, sharp stone used as a tool, with metathetic variant *ka-men‑, with variant *ka-mer‑.
1. hammer , from Old English hamor;
2. hamerkop , from Middle Dutch hamer, hammer. Both a and b from Germanic *hamaraz.
3. probable variant *ke-men-. heaven , from Old English heofon, hefn, heaven, from Germanic *hibin‑, "the stony vault of heaven," dissimilated form of *himin‑.
Suffixed form *ak-onā‑, independently created in:
1. awn , from Old Norse ögn, ear of grain, and Old English agen, ear of grain, from Germanic *aganō; and;
2. paragon , from Greek akonē, whetstone.
Also built to the root form *ak‑ with a suffix containing -n‑ (although the formation is obscure) is Sanskrit aśani‑, arrowhead, thunderbolt: anaconda .
Suffixed lengthened form *āk-ri‑. acerate , acrid , acrimony , eager ¹; carvacrol , vinegar , from Latin ācer, sharp, bitter.
Suffixed form *ak-ri-bhwo‑. acerbic , exacerbate , from Latin acerbus, bitter, sharp, tart.
Suffixed (stative) form *ak-ē‑. acid , from Latin acēre, to be sharp.
Suffixed form *ak-ēto‑. acetabulum , acetic , acetum ; ester , from Latin acētum, vinegar.
Suffixed form *ak-mā‑. acme , acne , from Greek akmē, point.
Suffixed form *ak-ro‑. acro- ; acrobat , acromion , from Greek akros, topmost.
O-grade form *ok‑ (from earlier *h₂ok‑) in suffixed form *ok-ri‑. mediocre , from Latin ocris, rugged mountain.
Suffixed o-grade form *ok-su‑. amphioxus , oxalis , oxygen , oxytone , oxyuriasis , paroxysm , from Greek oxus, sharp, sour.

||[Pokorny 2. ak̑‑ 18, 3.k̑em‑ 556.]

r010_ ‌ ‌ ak^w-ā-
Water.

ait ; island , from Old English īg, īeg, island, from Germanic *aujō, "thing on the water," from *agwjō.
aqua , aquarelle , aquarium , aquatic , aqui- , ewer , gouache ; agua fresca , aguardiente , aquamarine , aquatint , aquavit , aqueduct , sewer ¹, from Latin aqua, water.

||[Pokorny ak^u̯ā‑ 23.]

r011_ ‌ ‌ al-¹
Beyond. Oldest form probably *h₂el‑, colored to *h₂al‑.
Derivatives include alarm , ultimate , else , alien , alibi , and parallel.

O-grade form *ol‑ (earlier *h₂ol‑), "beyond."
1. Compound forms *ol-se‑, *ol-so‑ (*so‑, pronominal stem; see so- ). alarm , alert , alfresco , alligator , El Niño , hoopla , lagniappe , langue d'oïl , lariat , voilà , from Latin ille (feminine illa, neuter illud), "yonder," that, from Archaic Latin ollus;
2. suffixed forms *ol-s, *ol-tero‑. outré , ulterior , ultimate , ultra- , utterance ², from Latin uls, *ulter, ultrā, beyond.
Suffixed form *al-tero‑, "other of two."
1. alter , altercate , alterity , alternate , altruism ; subaltern , from Latin alter, other, other of two;
2. adulterate , adulterine , adultery , from Latin adulterāre, to commit adultery with, pollute, probably from the phrase ad alterum, "(approaching) another (unlawfully)" (ad, to; see ad- );
3. variant suffixed form *an-tero‑, "other (of two)." other , from Old English ōther, from Germanic *antharaz.
Suffixed form *al-eno‑. Aranyaka , from Sanskrit araṇa‑, foreign.
Extended form *alyo‑, "other of more than two."
1. else ; eldritch , from Old English el‑, elles, else, otherwise, from Germanic *aljaz (with adverbial suffix);
2. alias , alien ; alibi , aliquot , hidalgo , from Latin alius, other of more than two;
3. allo- ; allegory , allelomorph , allelopathy , morphallaxis , parallax , parallel , trophallaxis , from Greek allos, other.

||[Pokorny 1. al‑ 24, 2.an 37.]

r012_ ‌ ‌ al-²
To grow, nourish.
Derivatives include old , haughty , altitude , enhance , alumnus , coalesce , and prolific.

Suffixed (participial) form *al-to‑, "grown."
1. 1. alderman , old , from Old English eald, ald, old;
  2. elder ¹, from Old English (comparative) ieldra, eldra, older, elder;
  3. eldest , from Old English (superlative) ieldesta, eldesta, eldest;
  4. Germanic compound *wer-ald‑ (see wī-ro- ). a-d all from Germanic *alda‑.
2. alt ¹, alto , haughty , hawser ; altimeter , altiplano , altitude , altocumulus , altostratus , enhance , exalt , hautboy , from Latin altus, high ("grown tall"), deep.
Suffixed form *al-mo‑. alma mater , from Latin almus, nurturing, nourishing.
Suffixed form *al-o‑. adolescent , adult , alible , aliment , alimony , altricial , alumnus ; coalesce , from Latin alere, to nourish, and alumnus, fosterling, step-child, originally a participle of alere ("being nourished," < *al-o-mno‑).
Suffixed (causative) form *ol-eye‑. abolish , from Latin abolēre, to retard the growth of, abolish (ab‑, from; see apo- ).
Compound form *pro-al‑ (pro‑, forth; see per ¹). proletarian , proliferous , prolific , from Latin prōlēs, offspring.
Extended form *aldh‑. althea , from Greek althein, althainein, to get well.

||[Pokorny 2. al‑ 26.]

r013_ ‌ ‌ al-³
All. Germanic and Celtic root.

Suffixed form *al-na‑.
1. all ; albeit , already , also , although , always , as ¹, from Old English all, eall, eal‑, al‑, all;
2. Althing , from Old Norse allr, all. Both a and b from Germanic *allaz.
Germanic *ala‑, all, in compound *Ala-manniz (see man- ¹).

|| ||[Pokorny 1. al‑ 24.]

r014_ ‌ ‌ albho-
White.
Derivatives include elf , oaf , and albino.

Possibly Germanic *albiz, *albaz, elf, if meaning "white ghostly apparition."
1. elf , from Old English ælf, elf;
2. oaf , from Old Norse alfr, elf;
3. Erl-king , from Danish elv, elf;
4. Oberon , from Old French Auberon, from a source akin to Old High German Alberich.
elfin , elven , from Old English -elfen, elf, possibly from Germanic *albinjō.
abele , alb , albedo , albescent , albino , albite , album , albumen , aubade , auburn ; daub , from Latin albus, white.

||[Pokorny albho‑ 30.]

r015_ ‌ ‌ alu-
In words related to sorcery, magic, possession, and intoxication.

: Suffixed form *alu-t‑. ale , from Old English ealu, from Germanic *aluth‑.

||[Pokorny alu‑ 33.]

r016_ ‌ ‌ ambhi
Also m̥bhi.
Around. Probably derived from *ant-bhi, "from both sides" (see ant- ).

Reduced form *bhi.
1. by ¹; abaft , but , from Old English bi, bī, be, by;
2. be- , from Old English be‑, on all sides, be‑, also intensive prefix;
3. beleaguer , from Middle Dutch bie, by;
4. bivouac , from Old High German bi, by, at. a-d all from Germanic *bi, *bi‑ (intensive prefix).
1. Ember Day , from Old English ymbe, around;
2. ombudsman , from Old Norse um(b), about, around;
3. umlaut , from Old High German umbi, around. a-c all from Germanic *umbi.
1. ambi- , from Latin ambi‑, around, about;
2. alley ¹, alley-oop , ambulance , ambulate , andante ; funambulist , perambulate , preamble , from Latin amb‑, around, about, in ambulāre, to go about, walk (*alāre, to go).
amphi- , from Greek amphi, around, about.
Celtic *ambi, around, in compound *amb(i)-ag-to‑ (see ag- ).

||[Pokorny ambhi 34.]

r017_ ‌ ‌ an-
On.

Extended form *ana.
1. 1. on ; acknowledge , alike , from Old English an, on, a, on, and prefixed on‑;
  2. aloft , amiss , from Old Norse ā, in, on;
  3. anlage , Anschluss , from Old High German ana‑, on;
  4. onslaught , from Middle Dutch aen, on. a-d all from Germanic *ana, *anō.
2. ana ², ana- , from Greek ana, on, up, at the rate of.
Variant form *no. naprapathy , from Old Church Slavonic na, in, on, to, from Slavic *na.

||[Pokorny 4. an 39.]

r018_ ‌ ‌ anə-
To breathe. Oldest form *h₂enh₁‑, colored to *h₂anh₁‑.Suffixed form *h₂anh₁-mo‑.

anima , animadvert , animal , animate , animato , animism , animosity , animus ; equanimity , longanimity , magnanimous , pusillanimous , unanimous , from Latin animus, reason, mind, spirit, and anima, soul, spirit, life, breath;
anemo- , anemone , from Greek anemos, wind.

||[Pokorny 3. an(ə)‑ 38.]

r019_ ‌ ‌ angh-
Tight, painfully constricted, painful. Oldest form *ang̑h‑, becoming *angh‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include anger , hangnail , and quinsy.

agnail , hangnail , from Old English ang-nægl, "painful spike (in the flesh)," corn, excrescence (nægl, spike; see nogh- ), from Germanic *ang‑, compressed, hard, painful.
Suffixed form *angh-os‑. anger , from Old Norse angr, sorrow, grief, from Germanic *angaz.
Suffixed form *angh-os-ti‑. angst ¹, from Old High German angust, anxiety, from Germanic *angusti‑.
anxious , from Latin angere, to strangle, torment.
Suffixed form *angh-os-to‑. anguish , from Latin angustus, narrow.
quinsy , from Greek ankhein, to squeeze, embrace.
angina , from Greek ankhonē, a strangling.

||[Pokorny ang̑h‑ 42.]

r020_ ‌ ‌ ansu-
Spirit, demon. Oldest form *h₂e/onsu‑, colored to *h₂a/onsu‑.

Aesir ; Asgard , from Old Norse āss, god, from Germanic *ansu‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *n̥su-ro‑. Ahura Mazda , Ormazd , from Avestan ahura‑, spirit, lord.

||[Pokorny ansu‑ 48.]

r021_ ‌ ‌ ant-
Front, forehead. Oldest form *h₂ent‑, colored to *h₂ant‑
Derivatives include along , end , advance , and antique.

Inflected form (locative singular) *anti, "against," with derivatives meaning in front of, before; also end.
1. un- ²; along , from Old English and‑, indicating opposition, from Germanic *andi‑ and *anda‑.
2. end , from Old English ende, end, from Germanic *andja‑.
3. ancient ¹, ante , ante- , anterior ; advance , advantage , vanguard , from Latin ante, before, in front of, against.
4. anti- ; enantiomer , enantiomorph , from Greek anti, against, and enantios, opposite.
5. Compound form *anti-ək^wo‑ (from earlier *h₂anti-h₃k^wo‑) "appearing before, having prior aspect" (*h₃k^w‑, appearance; see ok^w- ). antic , antique , from Latin antīquus, former, antique.
6. Reduced form *n̥ti‑.
  1. until , from Old Norse und, until, unto;
  2. elope , from Middle Dutch ont‑, away from. Both a and b from Germanic *und‑.
7. Variant form *anto‑. Vedanta , from Sanskrit antaḥ, end.
Probable inflected form (ablative plural) *ant-bhi, "from both sides," whence *ambhi, around. See ambhi .

||[Pokorny ant-s 48.]

r022_ ‌ ‌ apo-
Also ap-.
Off, away.
Derivatives include off , ebb , awkward , puny , and compote.

1. of , off , offal , from Old English of, æf, off;
2. ebb , from Old English ebba, low tide;
3. ablaut , from Old High German aba, off, away from;
4. aft ; abaft , from Old English æftan, behind, from Germanic *aftan‑. a-d all from Germanic *af.
ab- ¹, from Latin ab, ab‑, away from.
apo- , from Greek apo, away from, from.
Suffixed (comparative) form *ap(o)-tero‑. after , from Old English æfter, after, behind, from Germanic *aftar‑.
Suffixed form *ap-t-is‑. eftsoons , from Old English eft, again, from Germanic *aftiz.
Suffixed form *apu-ko‑. awkward , from Old Norse öfugr, turned backward, from Germanic *afug‑.
Possible variant root form *po(s), on, in.
1. pogrom , from Russian po, at, by, next to;
2. post- , posterior ; postmortem , preposterous , puisne , puny , from Latin post, behind, back, afterward;
3. apposite , apposition , apropos , component , compose , composite , composition , compost , compote , compound ¹, contrapposto , depone , deposit , dispose , exponent , expose , expound , impose , impost ¹, impost ², interpose , juxtapose , oppose , position , positive , post ², post ³, postiche , posture , preposition ¹, propose , provost , punt ³, reposit , suppose , transpose , from Latin pōnere, to put, place, from *po-s(i)nere (sinere, to leave, let; of obscure origin).

||[Pokorny apo‑ 53.]

r023_ ‌ ‌ ar-
Also arə-.
To fit together. Oldest form *h₂erh₁‑, colored to *h₂arh₁‑, with variant *h₂reh₁‑, becoming *rē‑.
Derivatives include army , harmony , inert , aristocracy , adorn , hatred , rite , arithmetic , and rhyme.

Basic form *arə.
1. Suffixed form ar(ə)-mo‑.
  1. arm ¹, from Old English earm, arm, from Germanic *armaz;
  2. ambry , arm ², armada , armadillo , armature , armoire , army ; alarm , disarm , gendarme , from Latin arma, tools, arms;
  3. armillary sphere , from Latin armus, upper arm.
2. Suffixed form *ar(ə)-smo‑. harmony , from Greek harmos, joint, shoulder.
3. Suffixed form *ar(ə)-ti‑.
  1. art ¹, artisan , artist ; inert , inertia , from Latin ars (stem art‑), art, skill, craft;
  2. further suffixed form *ar(ə)-ti-o‑. artiodactyl , from Greek artios, fitting, even.
4. Suffixed form *ar(ə)-tu‑. article , from Latin artus, joint.
5. Suffixed form *ar(ə)-to‑. coarctate , from Latin artus, tight.
6. Suffixed form *ar(ə)-dhro‑. arthro- ; anarthrous , diarthrosis , dysarthria , enarthrosis , synarthrosis , from Greek arthron, joint.
7. Suffixed (superlative) form *ar(ə)-isto‑. aristocracy , from Greek aristos, best.
Possibly suffixed lengthened o-grade form (or separate root) *ōrə-dh‑.
1. ordain , order , ordinal , ordinance , ordinary , ordinate , ordo ; coordination , inordinate , subordinate , from Latin ōrdō, order (originally a row of threads in a loom).
2. exordium , primordial , from Latin ōrdīrī, to begin to weave.
3. ornament , ornate ; adorn , suborn , from Latin ōrnāre, to adorn.
Variant *rē‑ (< earlier *h₂reh₁‑).
1. rate ¹, ratio , ration , reason ; arraign , from Latin rērī, to consider, confirm, ratify.
2. Suffixed form *rē-dh‑.
  1. 1. read , rede ; dread , from Old English rǣdan, to advise;
    2. hatred , kindred , from Old English rǣden, -rǣden, condition. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *rēdan.
  2. 1. rathskeller , from Old High German rāt, counsel;
    2. riddle ², from Old English rǣdels(e), opinion, riddle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *rēdaz.
3. Zero-grade form *rə‑. Germanic *radam, number, in dialectal North and West Germanic compound *hund(a)-rada‑ (see dekm̥ ).
Variant root form *h₂reh₁i‑, with zero-grades *h₂rh₁i‑ and (metathesized) *h₂rih₁‑, the latter contracted to *rī‑.
1. Suffixed metathesized zero-grade form *rī-tu‑. rite , from Latin rītus, rite, custom, usage.
2. Suffixed unmetathesized zero-grade form *ərəi-dhmo‑. arithmetic , logarithm , from Greek arithmos, number, amount.
3. rhyme , from a Germanic source akin to Old High German rīm, number, series.

||[Pokorny 1. ar‑ 55.]

r024_ ‌ ‌ arg-
To shine; white; the shining or white metal, silver. Oldest form *h₂(e)rg̑‑, colored to *h₂(a)rg̑‑, becoming *arg̑‑ in satem languages and *arg‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *arg-ent‑. argent , argentine , from Latin argentum, silver.
Suffixed form *arg-i-l(l)‑. argil , from Greek argillos, white clay.
Suffixed form *arg-u-ro‑. litharge , pyrargyrite , from Greek arguros, silver.
Suffixed form *arg-u-no‑. Arjuna , from Sanskrit arjunaḥ, bright, white, silvery.
Suffixed form *arg-i-n‑. arginine , from Greek arginoeis, brilliant, bright-shining.
Suffixed form *arg-u‑, brilliant, clear. argue , from Latin denominative arguere, to make clear, demonstrate (< *argu-yo‑).
Suffixed zero-grade form *ər̥g-ro‑, becoming *arg-ro‑. agrimony , possibly from Greek argos, white (< *argros).
Suffixed zero-grade form *ər̥g-ro‑, becoming *arg-ro‑. agrimony , possibly from Greek argos, white (< *argros).

||[Pokorny ar(e)-g̑‑ 64.]

r025_ ‌ ‌ as-
To burn, glow. Oldest form *h₂es‑, colored to *h₂as‑.
Derivatives include arson , and azalea.

Extended form *asg‑.
1. ash ¹, from Old English æsce, asce, ash;
2. potassium , from Middle Dutch asche, ash. Both a and b from Germanic *askōn‑.
Suffixed form *ās-ā‑. Ara , from Latin āra, altar, hearth.
Suffixed (stative) form *ās-ē‑.
1. arid , from Latin āridus, dry, parched, from ārēre, to be dry;
2. ardent , ardor , arson , from Latin ārdēre, to burn, be on fire, from āridus, parched.
Extended form *asd‑.
1. zamia , from Greek azein, to dry;
2. azalea , from Greek azaleos, dry.

||[Pokorny ā̆s‑ 68.]

r026_ ‌ ‌ at-
To go; with Germanic and Latin derivatives meaning a year (conceived as "the period gone through, the revolving year"). Suffixed form *at-no‑.

: annals , annual , annuity ; anniversary , biennium , decennium , millennium , perennial , quadrennium , quinceañera , quindecennial , quinquennium , septennial , sexennial , superannuated , triennium , vicennial , from Latin annus, year.

||[Pokorny at‑ 69.]

r027_ ‌ ‌ āter-
Fire.

Suffixed zero-grade form *ātr-o‑. atrabilious , from Latin āter (feminine ātra), black (< "blackened by fire").
Suffixed zero-grade form *ātr-yo‑. atrium , from Latin ātrium, forecourt, hall, atrium (perhaps originally the place where the smoke from the hearth escaped through a hole in the roof).
Compound shortened zero-grade form *atro-ək^w‑, "black-looking" (*ək^w‑, "looking"; see ok^w- ). atrocious , from Latin ā̆trōx, frightful.
Basic form *āter. zircon , from Old Persian *ātar, fire (stem āç‑ attested in month name āçiyādiya, "(month) of fire-worship"), from Indo-Iranian *ātar.
Possibly, but obscurely related to this root is Sanskrit atharvā, atharvan‑, priest (-van‑, possessive suffix): Atharva-Veda .

||[Pokorny āt(e)r‑ 69.]

r028_ ‌ ‌ au-
To perceive. Compound forms *au-dh‑, *awis-dh‑, "to place perception" (*dh‑, to place; see dhē- ).

Suffixed form *awisdh-yo‑ or *audh-yo‑. audible , audience , audile , audio- , audit , audition , auditor , auditorium , auditory , oyez ; obey , subaudition , from Latin audīre, to hear.
aesthetic ; anesthesia , from Greek aisthanesthai, to feel.

||[Pokorny 8. au̯‑ 78.]

r029_ ‌ ‌ aug-
To increase. Oldest form *h₂eug‑, colored to *h₂aug‑. Variant *h₂weg‑ becoming *(a)weg‑.
Derivatives include nickname , auction , and auxiliary.

1. eke ¹, from Old English ēacan, ēcan, to increase;
2. nickname , from Old English ēaca, an addition. Both a and b from Germanic *aukan.
Variant (metathesized) form *weg‑ (from *əweg‑), extended to *wegs‑ (o-grade *wogs‑).
1. wax ²; woodwaxen , from Old English weaxan, to grow, from Germanic *wahsan;
2. waist , from Old English *wæst, growth, hence perhaps waist, size, from Germanic *wahs-tu‑.
Form *aug-ē‑. auction , augend , augment , author , authorize , from Latin augēre, to increase.
augur ; inaugurate , from Latin augur, diviner (< "he who obtains favorable presage" < "divine favor, increase").
august , from Latin augustus, majestic, august.
Suffixed form *aug-s‑.
1. auxiliary , from Latin auxilium, aid, support, assistance;
2. auxin , auxesis , from Greek auxein, auxanein, to increase.

||[Pokorny au̯eg‑ 84.]

r030_ ‌ ‌ aus-
To shine.
Derivatives include east , Easter , and aurora.

1. east , from Old English ēast, east (< "the direction of the sunrise");
2. ostmark , from Old High German ōstan, east. Both a and b from Germanic *aust‑.
1. eastern , from Old English ēasterne, eastern;
2. Ostrogoth , from Late Latin ostro‑, eastern. Both a and b from Germanic *austra‑.
Easter , from Old English ēastre, Easter, from Germanic *austrōn‑, dawn.
Possibly in Latin auster, the south wind, formally identical to the Germanic forms in 2 and 3, but the semantics are unclear austral , Austro- ¹.
Probably suffixed form *ausōs‑, dawn, also Indo-European goddess of the dawn.
1. aurora , from Latin aurōra, dawn;
2. eo- , Eos ; eosin , from Greek ēōs, dawn.

||[Pokorny au̯es‑ 86.]

r031_ ‌ ‌ awi-
Bird. Oldest form *h₂ewi‑, colored to *h₂awi‑.
Derivatives include aviation , bustard , ostrich , cockney , oval , and caviar.

1. avian , aviary , aviation ; aviculture , avifauna , bustard , ocarina , osprey , ostrich , from Latin avis, bird.
2. Compound *awi-spek‑, "observer of birds" (*spek‑, to see; see spek- ). auspice , from Latin auspex, augur.
Possible derivatives are the Indo-European words for egg, *ōwyo‑, *ōyyo‑.
1. 1. cockney , from Old English ǣg, egg;
  2. egg ¹, from Old Norse egg, egg. Both a and b from Germanic *ajja(m).
2. oval , ovary , ovate , ovi- , ovolo , ovule , ovum , from Latin ōvum, egg.
3. oo- ; avgolemono , bottarga , from Greek ōion, egg.
4. caviar , from a source akin to Middle Persian khāyak, egg, from Old Iranian *āvyaka‑, diminutive of *avya‑.

||[Pokorny au̯ei‑ 86.]

r032_ ‌ ‌ awo-
An adult male relative other than one's father.

atavism , from Latin avus, grandfather.
avuncular , uncle , from Latin avunculus, maternal uncle.
ayah , from Latin avia, grandmother.

||[Pokorny au̯o-s 89.]

r033_ ‌ ‌ ayer-
Day, morning.

1. early , ere , or ², from Old English ǣr, before;
2. or ², from Old Norse ār, before. Both a and b from Germanic *airiz.
erst , from Old English ǣrest, earliest, from Germanic (superlative) *airistaz.

||[Pokorny ā̆i̯er‑ 12.]

r034_ ‌ ‌ ayes-
A metal, copper or bronze.

: aeneous , era , from Latin aes, bronze, money.

||[Pokorny ai̯os‑ 15.]

r035_ ‌ ‌ bak-
Staff used for support.

1. bacillus , baculum , baguette , bail ⁴, bailey ; baculiform , debacle , imbecile , from Latin baculum, rod, walking stick;
2. Possibly Latin imbēcillus, imbecillus, feeble, possibly from *in-bacillus , "without a staff (to steady oneself), without support," from bacillus, diminutive of baculum (in‑, not; see ne ). imbecile .
bacterium ; corynebacterium , from Greek baktron, staff.

||[Pokorny bak‑ 93.]

r036_ ‌ ‌ bel-
Strong.

Suffixed o-grade form *bol-iyo‑. Bolshevik , from Russian bol'shoĭ, large.
Prefixed form *dē-bel-i‑, "without strength" (dē‑, privative prefix; see de- ). debilitate , debility , from Latin dēbilis, weak.

||[Pokorny 2. bel‑ 96.]

r037_ ‌ ‌ bhā-¹
To shine. Oldest form *bheh₂‑, colored to *bhah₂‑, becoming *bhā‑.
Derivatives include beacon , berry , banner , fantasy , and phase.

Suffixed zero-grade form *bhə-w‑.
1. beacon , from Old English bēac(e)n, beacon;
2. beckon , from Old English bēcnan, bīecnan, to make a sign, beckon, from Germanic denominative *bauknjan;
3. buoy , from Old French boue, buoy. a-c all from Germanic *baukna‑, beacon, signal.
Perhaps Germanic *bazja‑, berry (< "bright-colored fruit").
1. berry ; mulberry , from Old English berie, berige, berry, and Old High German beri, berry;
2. frambesia , from Old French framboise, raspberry, alteration of Frankish *brām-besi, "bramble berry.".
1. bandoleer , from Spanish banda, sash;
2. banderilla , banderole , banner , banneret ¹, banneret ², from Late Latin bandum, banner, standard. Both a and b from Germanic *bandwa‑, "identifying sign," banner, standard, sash, also "company united under a (particular) banner.".
Suffixed zero-grade form *bhə-w-es‑. phos- , phot , photo- ; phosphorus , from Greek phōs (stem phōt‑), light.
Suffixed zero-grade form *bhə-w‑. Phaëthon , from Greek phaeithein, to shine, burn.
Extended and suffixed zero-grade form *bhə-n-yo‑. fantasy , pant ¹, -phane , phantasm , phantom , phase , pheno- , phenomenon ; diaphanous , emphasis , epiphany , glaucophane , hierophant , phaneritic , phanerogam , Phanerozoic , phantasmagoria , phosphene , sycophant , theophany , tiffany , from Greek phainein, "to bring to light," cause to appear, show, and phainesthai (passive), "to be brought to light," appear, with zero-grade noun phasis (*bhə-ti‑), an appearance.

||[Pokorny 1. bhā‑ 104.]

r038_ ‌ ‌ bhā-²
To speak. Oldest form *bheh₂‑, colored to *bhah₂‑, becoming *bhā‑.
Derivatives include fate , infant , prophet , abandon , banish , symphony , confess , and blame.

fable , fabliau , fabulous , fado , fairy , fandango , fate , fay ²; affable , fantoccini , ineffable , infant , infantry , preface , from Latin fārī, to speak.
-phasia ; apophasis , prophet , from Greek phanai, to speak.
1. ban ¹, from Old English bannan, to summon, proclaim, and Old Norse banna, to prohibit, curse;
2. banal , banns ; abandon , from Old French ban, feudal jurisdiction, summons to military service, proclamation, Old French bandon, power, and Old English gebann, proclamation;
3. banish , from Old French banir, to banish;
4. contraband , from Late Latin bannus, bannum, proclamation;
5. bandit , from Italian bandire, to proclaim, proscribe, banish. a-e all from Germanic suffixed form *ban-wan, *bannan, to speak publicly (used of particular kinds of proclamation in feudal or prefeudal custom; "to proclaim under penalty, summon to the levy, declare outlaw").
Suffixed form *bhā-ni‑.
1. boon ¹, from Old Norse bōn, prayer, request;
2. bee ¹, perhaps from Old English bēn, prayer, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse bōn, prayer. Both a and b from Germanic *bōni‑.
Suffixed form *bhā-ma.
1. fame , famous ; defame , infamous , from Latin fāma, talk, reputation, fame;
2. euphemism , Polyphemus , from Greek phēmē, saying, speech.
Suffixed o-grade form *bhō-nā‑. phone ², -phone , phoneme , phonetic , phono- , -phony ; anthem , antiphon , aphonia , cacophonous , euphony , symphony , from Greek phōnē, voice, sound, and (denominative) phōnein, to speak.
Suffixed zero-grade form *bhə-to‑. confess , profess , from Latin fatērī, to acknowledge, admit.
blame , blaspheme , from Greek blasphēmos, blasphemous, perhaps from *ml̥s-bhā-mo‑, "speaking evil" (blas‑, evil; see mel- ³).

||[Pokorny 2. bhā‑ 105.]

r039_ ‌ ‌ bha-bhā-
Broad bean.

fava bean , favela , from Latin faba, broad bean.
Variant form *bha-un‑. bean , from Old English bēan, broad bean, bean of any kind, from Germanic *baunō.
Possible suffixed form *bha-ko‑. phacoemulsification , from Greek phakos, lentil.
Variant form *bha-bho‑. bupkis , from a Slavic source akin to Polish bób and Russian bob, lentil.

||[Pokorny bhabhā 106.]

r040_ ‌ ‌ bhad-
Good.

better ¹, from Old English betera, better, from Germanic (comparative) *batizō.
best , from Old English bet(e)st, best, from Germanic (superlative) *batistaz.
boot ², from Old English bōt, remedy, aid, from Germanic noun *bōtō.
batten ¹, ultimately from Old Norse batna, to improve, from Germanic verb *batnan, to become better.

||[Pokorny bhā̆d‑ 106.]

r041_ ‌ ‌ bhag-
To share out, apportion, also to get a share.

-phage , -phagia , phago- , -phagous ; esophagus , from Greek phagein, to eat (< "to have a share of food").
porgy , from Greek phagros, whetstone ("eater, that eats metal"), also a name for the sea bream, from Greek suffixed form *phag-ro‑.
nebbish , from a Slavic source akin to Czech neboh, poor, unfortunate, from Common Slavic *ne-bogŭ, poor ("un-endowed").
pagoda ; Bhagavad-Gita , from Sanskrit bhagaḥ, good fortune.
bhakti , from Sanskrit bhajati, he apportions.
Extended form *bhags‑. baksheesh , buckshee , from Persian bakhshīdan, to give, from Avestan bakhsh‑.

||[Pokorny 1. bhag‑ 107.]

r042_ ‌ ‌ bhāghu-
Arm. Oldest form *bhāg̑hu‑, becoming *bhāghu‑ in centum languages.

: bough , from Old English bōg, bōh, bough, from Germanic *bōguz.

||[Pokorny bhāghú-s (misprint for bhāg̑hú-s ) 108.]

r043_ ‌ ‌ bhāgo-
Beech tree.

1. book ¹, from Old English bōc, written document, composition;
2. buckwheat , from Middle Dutch boek, beech;
3. Bokmål , from Norwegian bok, book. a-c all from Germanic *bōkō, beech, also "beech staff for carving runes on" (an early Germanic writing device).
beech , from Old English bēce, beech, from Germanic *bōkjōn‑.

||[Pokorny bhāgó-s 107.]

r044_ ‌ ‌ bhardh-ā-
Beard.

beard , from Old English beard, beard, from Germanic *bardaz.
halberd , from Old High German barta, beard, ax, from Germanic *bardō, beard, also hatchet, broadax.
barb ¹, barbel ¹, barbellate , barber , barbette , barbicel , barbule , barbut , bichon ; rebarbative , from Latin barba, beard.

||[Pokorny bhardhā 110.]

r045_ ‌ ‌ bhares-
Also bhars-.
Barley.

1. barn , from Old English bere, barley, from Germanic *bariz‑;
2. barley , from Old English bærlic, barley-like, barley, from Germanic *barz‑.
farina , farinaceous , farraginous , farrago , farro , from Latin far (stem farr‑), spelt, grain.

||[Pokorny bhares‑ 111.]

r046_ ‌ ‌ bhau-
To strike. Oldest form *bheh₂u‑, colored to *bhah₂u‑, becoming *bhau‑.
Derivatives include beat , buttock , halibut , button , and refute.

beat , from Old English bēatan, to beat, from Germanic *bautan.
beetle ³; battledore , from Old English bȳtl, hammer, mallet, from Germanic *bautilaz, hammer.
baste ³, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse beysta, to beat, denominative from Germanic *baut-sti‑.
buttock , from Old English diminutive buttuc, end, strip of land, from Germanic *būtaz.
1. halibut , from Middle Dutch butte, flatfish;
2. turbot , from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish but, flatfish. Both a and b from Germanic *butt‑, name for a flatfish.
bouton , butt ¹, button , buttress ; abut , rebut , sackbut , from Old French bo(u)ter, to strike, push, from Germanic *buttan.
Variant zero-grade form *bhū‑ (< *bhuə‑, metathesized from *bhəu‑). Suffixed form *bhū-t-ā‑.
1. confute , from Latin cōnfūtāre, to check, suppress, restrain (com‑, intensive prefix; see kom );
2. refute , from Latin refūtāre, to drive back, rebut (re‑, back; see re- ).
Possibly reduced suffixed form *bhu-tu‑ (*bhəu‑) footle ; clafoutis , from Latin futuere, to have intercourse with (a woman).

||[Pokorny 1. bhā̆u‑ 112.]

r047_ ‌ ‌ bheg^w-
To run.

beck ², from Old Norse bekkr, a stream, from Germanic *bakjaz, a stream.
-phobe , -phobia , from Greek phobos, panic, flight, fear, from phebesthai, to flee in terror.

||[Pokorny bheg^u̯‑ 116.]

r048_ ‌ ‌ bhei-
A bee.

: bee ¹, from Old English bēo, a bee, from Germanic suffixed form *bīōn‑.

||[Pokorny bhei‑ 116.]

r049_ ‌ ‌ bheid-
To split; with Germanic derivatives referring to biting (hence also to eating and to hunting) and woodworking.
Derivatives include bite , bitter , and fission.

1. beetle ¹, bite , from Old English bītan, to bite;
2. tsimmes , from Old High German bīzan, bizzan, to bite. Both a and b from Germanic *bītan.
Zero-grade form *bhid‑.
1. bit ², from Old English bite, a bite, sting, from Germanic *bitiz;
2. 1. bit ¹, from Old English bita, a piece bitten off, morsel;
  2. bitt , from a Germanic source akin to Old Norse biti, bit, crossbeam;
  3. pizza , from Italian pizza, pizza, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German bizzo, pizzo, bite, morsel. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *bitōn‑;
  4. pita , from Medieval Greek pita, perhaps from Gothic *bita, bite, morsel. (i)-(iv) all from Germanic *bitōn‑.
3. suffixed form *bhid-ro‑. bitter , from Old English bit(t)er, "biting," sharp, bitter.
O-grade form *bhoid‑.
1. bait ¹, from Old Norse beita (verb), to hunt with dogs, and beita (noun), pasture, food;
2. abet , from Old French beter, to harass with dogs. Both a and b from Germanic *baitjan.
giblets , from Old French gibiez, game, from Germanic *gabaiti‑ (*ga‑, collective prefix; see kom ).
bateau , boat ; boatswain , from Old English bāt, boat, from Germanic *bait‑, a boat (< "dugout canoe" or "split planking").
Nasalized zero-grade form *bhi-n-d‑. -fid , fissi- , fissile , fission , fissure , vent ², from Latin findere, to split.

||[Pokorny bheid‑ 116.]

r050_ ‌ ‌ bheidh-
To trust, confide, persuade.
Derivatives include bide , fiancé , and infidel.

Probably Germanic *bīdan, to await (< "to await trustingly, expect, trust") abide , abode , from Old English bīdan, to wait, stay.
fiancé , fiducial , fiduciary ; affiance , affiant , affidavit , confidant , confide , confident , defiance , defy , diffident , from Latin fīdere, to trust, confide, and fīdus, faithful.
Suffixed o-grade form *bhoidh-es‑. federal , federate ; confederate , from Latin foedus (stem foeder‑), treaty, league.
Zero-grade form *bhidh‑. faith , fay ³, fealty , fideism , fidelity ; infidel , perfidy , from Latin fidēs, faith, trust.

||[Pokorny 1. bheidh‑ 117.]

r051_ ‌ ‌ bhel-¹
To shine, flash, burn; shining white and various bright colors.
Derivatives include blue , bleach , blind , blond , blanket , black , flagrant , and flame.

Suffixed full-grade form *bhel-o‑.
1. 1. beluga , from Russian belyĭ, white;
  2. Beltane , from Scottish Gaelic bealltainn, from Old Irish beltaine, "fire of Bel" (ten, tene, fire), from Bel, name of a pagan Irish deity akin to the Gaulish divine name Belenos, from Celtic *bel-o‑.
2. phalarope , from Greek phalaros, having a white spot.
3. phalaenopsis , from Greek phallaina, moth (< *"white creature").
Extended root *bhleə₁‑, contracted to *bhlē‑.
1. Suffixed form *bhlē-wo‑. blue , from Old French bleu, blue, from Germanic *blēwaz, blue.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhl̥ə-wo‑. flavescent , flavo- ; flavin , flavone , flavoprotein , from Latin flāvus, golden or reddish yellow.
Various extended Germanic forms.
1. bleach , from Old English blǣcan, to bleach, from Germanic *blaikjan, to make white.
2. bleak ¹, from Old Norse bleikr, shining, white, from Germanic *blaikaz, shining, white.
3. blitzkrieg , from Old High German blëcchazzen, to flash, lighten, from Germanic *blikkatjan.
4. 1. blaze ¹, from Old English blæse, torch, bright fire;
  2. blesbok , from Middle Dutch bles, white spot;
  3. blemish , from Old French ble(s)mir, to make pale. a-c all from Germanic *blas‑, shining, white.
5. 1. blind ; blindfold , purblind , from Old English blind, blind;
  2. blende , from Old High German blentan, to blind, deceive;
  3. blend , from Old Norse blanda, to mix;
  4. blond , from Old French blond, blond. a-d all from Germanic *blendaz, clouded, and *bland‑, *bland-ja‑, to mix, mingle (< "make cloudy").
6. 1. blench ¹, from Old English blencan, to deceive;
  2. blanch , blank , blanket ; blancmange , Pinot Blanc , from Old French blanc, white. Both a and b from Germanic *blenk‑, *blank‑, to shine, dazzle, blind.
7. blush , from Old English blyscan, to glow red, from Germanic *blisk‑, to shine, burn.
Extended root *bhleg‑, to shine, flash, burn.
1. O-grade form bhlog‑. black , from Old English blæc, black, from Germanic *blakaz, burned.
2. Zero-grade form *bhl̥g‑.
  1. fulgent , fulgurate ; effulgent , foudroyant , refulgent , from Latin fulgēre, to flash, shine, and fulgur, lightning;
  2. fulminate , from Latin fulmen (< *fulg-men), lightning, thunderbolt.
3. 1. flagrant ; conflagrant , conflagration , deflagrate , from Latin flagrāre, to blaze;
  2. chamise , flambé , flambeau , flamboyant , flame , flamingo , flammable ; inflame , from Latin flamma (< *flag-ma), a flame.
4. phlegm , phlegmatic , Phlegethon , from Greek phlegein, to burn.
5. O-grade form *bhlog‑. phlogiston , phlox ; phlogopite , from Greek phlox, a flame, also a wallflower.

||[Pokorny 1. bhel‑ 118,bheleg‑ 124,bhleu-(k)‑ 159.]

r052_ ‌ ‌ bhel-²
To blow, swell; with derivatives referring to various round objects and to the notion of tumescent masculinity.
Derivatives include boulevard , boulder , phallus , balloon , ballot , and fool.

Zero-grade form bhl̥‑.
1. bowl ¹, from Old English bolla, pot, bowl;
2. bole ¹, from Old Norse bolr, tree trunk;
3. bulk , from Old Norse bulki, cargo (< "rolled-up load");
4. rocambole , from Old High German bolla, ball;
5. boulevard , bulwark , from Middle High German bole, beam, plank;
6. boll , from Middle Dutch bolle, round object;
7. biltong , from Middle Dutch bille, buttock;
8. boulder , from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish bullersten, "rounded stone," boulder, from *buller‑, "round object." a-h all from Germanic *bul‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *bhl̥-n‑.
1. bull ¹, from Old Norse boli, bull, from Germanic *bullōn‑;
2. bullock , from Old English bulluc, bull, from Germanic *bulluka‑;
3. phallus ; ithyphallic , from Greek phallos, phallus;
4. possibly Latin fullō, a fuller full ²; refoulement .
O-grade form *bhol‑.
1. bollock , bollix , from Old English beallucas, testicles;
2. ball ¹, from Old English *beall, ball;
3. foosball , from Old High German bal, ball;
4. bilberry , probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish bolle, round roll;
5. balloon , ballot , ballottement , from Italian dialectal balla, ball;
6. pall-mall , from Italian palla, ball;
7. bale ¹, from Old French bale, rolled-up bundle. a-g all from Germanic *ball‑.
Possibly suffixed o-grade form *bhol-to‑.
1. bold , from Old English bald, beald, bold;
2. bawd , from Old Saxon bald, bold;
3. Balder , from Old Norse ballr, baldr, brave. a-c from Germanic *balthaz, bold.
Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-n‑. fils ², follicle , folly , fool , from Latin follis, bellows, inflated ball.
Possibly Greek phal(l)aina, whale baleen .
Conceivably from this root (but more likely unrelated) is Greek phellos, cork, cork oak phellem ; phelloderm , phellogen .

||[Pokorny 3. bhel‑ 120.]
The following derivatives of this root are entered separately: bhel- ³, bhelgh- , bhleu- .

r053_ ‌ ‌ bhel-³
To thrive, bloom. Possibly from bhel- ².
Derivatives include foliage , blossom , flora , bleed , bless , and blade.

Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-yo‑, leaf.
1. foil ², foliage , folio , folium ; cinquefoil , defoliate , exfoliate , feuilleton , milfoil , perfoliate , portfolio , trefoil , from Latin folium, leaf.
2. -phyll , phyllo- , -phyllous ; anthophyllite , chervil , gillyflower , podophyllin , from Greek phullon, leaf.
Extended form *bhlē‑ (< *bhleə‑).
1. O-grade form *bhlō‑.
  1. Suffixed form *bhlō-w‑. blow ³, from Old English blōwan, to flower, from Germanic *blō-w‑;
  2. 1. bloom ¹, from Old Norse blōm, blōmi, flower, blossom;
    2. bloom ², from Old English blōma, a hammered ingot of iron (semantic development obscure). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic suffixed form *blō-mōn‑.
  3. blossom , from Old English blōstm, blōstma, flower, blossom, from Germanic suffixed form *blō-s‑;
  4. ferret ², flora , Flora , floral , floret , floriated , florid , florin , florist , -florous , flour , flourish , flower ; cauliflower , deflower , effloresce , enfleurage , florigen , millefiori glass , millefleur , from Latin flōs (stem flōr‑), flower, from Italic suffixed form *flō-s‑;
  5. suffixed form *bhlō-to‑, possibly in the meaning "swell, gush, spurt" in Germanic *blōdam, blood.
    1. blood , from Old English blōd, blood;
    2. bleed , from Old English *blēdan, to bleed, from Germanic denominative *blōdjan;
    3. bless , from Old English bloedsian, blētsian, to consecrate, from Germanic *blōdisōn, to treat or hallow with blood.
2. emblements , from Medieval Latin blādum, bladium, produce of the land, grain, from Germanic suffixed form *blē-da‑.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhlə-to‑. blade , from Old English blæd, leaf, blade, from Germanic *bladaz.

||[Pokorny 4. bhel‑ 122.]

r054_ ‌ ‌ bhelgh-
To swell. Extension of bhel- ² . Oldest form *bhelg̑h‑, becoming *bhelgh‑ in centum languages.

O-grade form *bholgh‑. bellows , belly , from Old English bel(i)g, bælig, bag, bellows, from Germanic *balgiz.
Zero-grade form *bhl̥gh‑. billow , from Old Norse bylgja, a wave, from Germanic *bulgjan.
Zero-grade form *bhl̥gh‑. bolster , from Old English bolster, cushion, from Germanic *bulgstraz.
O-grade form *bholgh‑.
1. Fir Bolg , Imbolc , from Irish bolg, bolc, bag.
2. budget , bulge , from Latin bulga, leather sack, from Celtic *bolg‑.

||[Pokorny bhelg̑h‑ 125.]

r055_ ‌ ‌ bhendh-
To bind.
Derivatives include bind , bandanna , and bundle.

1. bind ; woodbine , from Old English bindan, to bind;
2. bindlestiff , from Old High German binten, to bind. Both a and b from Germanic *bindan.
bandanna , from Sanskrit bandhati, he ties.
O-grade form *bhondh‑.
1. bend ²; ribbon , from Old English bend, band, and Old French bende, band;
2. bend ¹, from Old English bendan, to bend;
3. band ¹, bond , from Old Norse band, band, fetter;
4. gum band , from Old High German band, band;
5. band ¹, from Old French bande, bond, tie, link. a-e all from Germanic *band‑.
Suffixed form *bhondh-o‑. bund ¹; cummerbund , from Old Iranian banda‑, bond, fetter.
Zero-grade form *bhn̥dh‑.
1. bund ², from Middle High German bunt, league;
2. bundle , from Middle Dutch bondel, sheaf of papers, bundle. Both a and b from Germanic *bund‑.

||[Pokorny bhendh‑ 127.]

r056_ ‌ ‌ bher-¹
To carry; also to bear children.
Derivatives include birth , fertile , suffer , furtive , and metaphor.

1. 1. bear ¹, from Old English beran, to carry;
  2. forbear ¹, from Old English forberan, to bear, endure (for‑, for‑; see per ¹). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *beran.
2. bier , from Old English bēr, bǣr, bier, and Old French biere bier, both from Germanic *bērō;
3. bore ³, from Old Norse bāra, wave, billow, from Germanic *bēr‑.
1. bairn , from Old English bearn, child, from Germanic *barnam;
2. barrow ¹, from Old English bearwe, basket, wheelbarrow, from Germanic *barwōn‑.
1. burly , from Old English *borlic, excellent, exalted (< "borne up"), from Germanic *bur‑;
2. burden , from Old English byrthen, burden, from Germanic *burthinja‑;
3. birth , from a source akin to Old Norse burdhr, birth, from Germanic *burthiz;
4. birr ¹, from Old Norse byrr, favorable wind, perhaps from Germanic *burja‑.
Compound root *bhrenk‑, to bring (< *bher‑ + *enk‑, to reach; see nek- ²). bring , from Old English bringan, to bring, from Germanic *brengan.
-fer , fertile ; afferent , circumference , confer , defer ¹, defer ², differ , efferent , infer , offer , prefer , proffer , refer , suffer , transfer , vociferate , from Latin ferre, to carry.
Prefixed and suffixed zero-grade form *pro-bhr-o‑, "something brought before one" (*pro‑, before; see per ¹). opprobrium , from Latin probrum, a reproach.
Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhr̥-tu‑ in Latin words having to do with "chance" (? < "a bringing, that which is brought").
1. fortuitous , from Latin fortuītus, happening by chance;
2. Fortuna , fortune , from Latin fortūna, chance, good luck, fortune, and Fortūna, goddess of good fortune.
Probably lengthened o-grade form *bhōr‑. ferret ¹, furtive , furuncle ; furunculosis , from Latin fūr, thief.
feretory , -phore , -phoresis , -phorous ; amphora , anaphora , diaphoresis , euphoria , metaphor , periphery , pheromone , telpher , tocopherol , from Greek pherein, to carry, with o-grade noun phoros, a carrying.
paraphernalia , from Greek phernē, dowry ("something brought by a bride").
sambal , from Sanskrit bharati, he carries, brings.

||[Pokorny 1. bher‑ 128.]

r057_ ‌ ‌ bher-²
Bright, brown.

Suffixed variant form *bhrū-no‑.
1. brown , from Old English brūn, brown;
2. bruin , from Middle Dutch bruun;
3. brunet , burnet , burnish , from Old French brun, shining, brown. a-c all from Germanic *brūnaz.
Reduplicated form *bhibhru‑, *bhebhru‑, "the brown animal," beaver. beaver ¹, from Old English be(o)for, beaver, from Germanic *bebruz.
bear ², from Old English bera, bear, from Germanic *berō, "the brown animal," bear.
berserker , perhaps from Old Norse björn, bear, from Germanic *bernuz.

||[Pokorny 5. bher‑ 136.]

r058_ ‌ ‌ bherəg-
To shine; bright, white. Oldest form *bherh_xgibreve;‑, becoming *bherh_xg‑ in centum languages.

bright , from Old English beorht, bright, from Germanic *berhtaz, bright.
"The white tree," the birch (also the ash).
1. birch , birk , from Old English birc(e), birch, from Germanic *birkjōn‑;
2. probably suffixed zero-grade form *bhrag-s‑. fraxinella , from Latin fraxinus, ash tree.

||[Pokorny bherəg̑‑ 139.]

r059_ ‌ ‌ bhergh-¹
To hide, protect. Oldest form *bherg̑h‑, becoming *bhergh‑ in centum languages.

1. Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg‑ (see k^wel- ¹);
2. Germanic compound *skēr-berg‑ (see sker- ¹). Both a and b from Germanic *bergan, to protect.
Zero-grade form *bhr̥gh‑.
1. bury , from Old English byrgan, to bury, from Germanic *burgjan;
2. burial , from Old English byrgels, burial, from Germanic derivative *burgisli‑.
1. borrow , from Old English borgian, to borrow, from Germanic *borgēn, to pledge, lend, borrow;
2. bargain , from Old French bargaignier, to haggle, from Germanic derivative *borganjan.

||[Pokorny bherg̑h‑ 145.]

r060_ ‌ ‌ bhergh-²
High; with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts. Oldest form *bherg̑h‑, becoming *bhergh‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include iceberg , bourgeois , burglar , force , and fortify.

1. barrow ², from Old English beorg, hill;
2. iceberg , from Middle Dutch bergh, mountain;
3. inselberg , from Old High German berg, mountain;
4. Germanic compound *harja-bergaz (see koro- ). a-d all from Germanic *bergaz, hill, mountain.
belfry , from Old French berfroi, tower, from Germanic compound *berg-frij‑, "high place of safety," tower (*frij‑, peace, safety; see prī- ).
Zero-grade form *bhr̥gh‑.
1. borough , burg , from Old English burg, burh, byrig, (fortified) town;
2. burgomaster , from Middle Dutch burch, town;
3. bourg , bourgeois , burgess , burglar ; faubourg , from Late Latin burgus, fortified place, and Old French burg, borough;
4. burgher , from Old High German burgāri, townsman, from Germanic compound *burg-warōn‑, "city protector" (*warōn‑, protector; see wer- ⁴). a-d all from Germanic *burgs, hill-fort.
Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhr̥gh-to‑. force , fort , fortalice , forte ¹, forte ², fortis , fortissimo , fortitude , fortress ; comfort , deforce , effort , enforce , fortify , panforte , pianoforte , reinforce , from Latin fortis, strong (but this is also possibly from dher- ).

||[Pokorny bhereg̑h‑ 140.]

r061_ ‌ ‌ bhes-
To breathe. Probably imitative. Zero-grade form *bhs‑.

: psyche ¹, psychic , psycho- ; metempsychosis , from Greek psūkhē, spirit, soul, from psūkhein (< *bhs-ū-kh‑), to breathe.

||[Pokorny 2. bhes‑ 146.]

r062_ ‌ ‌ bheudh-
To be aware, to make aware.
Derivatives include bid , forbid , and Buddha. ²

1. bid , from Old English bēodan, to proclaim;
2. forbid , from Old English forbēodan, to forbid;
3. verboten , from Old High German farbiotan, to forbid. a-c all from Germanic *(for)beudan (*for, before; see per ¹).
bode ¹, from Old English bodian, to announce, from boda, messenger, from Germanic *budōn‑.
beadle , from Old English bydel, herald, messenger, and Old High German butil, herald, both from Germanic *budilaz, herald.
ombudsman , from Old Norse bodh, command, from Germanic *budam.
Buddha ²; bodhisattva , bodhi tree , bo tree , from Sanskrit bodhati, he awakes, is enlightened, becomes aware, and bodhiḥ, perfect knowledge.
Suffixed zero-grade form bhudh-to‑. Buddha ², from Sanskrit buddhaḥ, awakened, enlightened.

||[Pokorny bheudh‑ 150.]

r063_ ‌ ‌ bheuə-
Also bheu-.
To be, exist, grow. Oldest form *bheuh_x.
Derivatives include be , husband , imp , physics , future , neighbor , and beam.

Extended forms *bhwiy(o)‑, *bhwī‑.
1. be ; forebear , from Old English bēon, to be, from Germanic *biju, I am, will be.
2. fiat , from Latin fierī, to become.
3. Possibly suffixed form *bhwī-lyo‑, seen by some as the source of Latin fīlius, son, but this is more likely from dhē(i)- .
Lengthened o-grade form *bhōw‑.
1. bondage , bound ⁴; bustle ¹, husband , from Old Norse būa, to live, prepare, and būask, to make oneself ready (-sk, reflexive suffix; see s(w)e- );
2. Bauhaus , from Old High German būan, to dwell;
3. booth , from Middle English bothe, market stall, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Danish bōth, dwelling, stall. a-c from Germanic *bōwan.
Zero-grade form *bhu‑.
1. 1. build , from Old English byldan, to build, from bold, dwelling, house, from Germanic *buthla‑;
  2. boodle , from Middle Dutch bōdel, riches, property, from alternate Germanic form *bōthla.
2. physic , physics , physio- , physique , -phyte , phyto- , phyton ; apophysis , diaphysis , diphyodont , epiphysis , euphuism , hypophysis , imp , Monophysite , neophyte , periphyton , symphysis , tracheophyte , from Greek phuein, to bring forth, make grow, phutos, phuton, a plant, and phusis, growth, nature.
3. Suffixed form *bhu-tā‑.
  1. eisteddfod , from Welsh bod, to be;
  2. bothy , from Old Irish both, a hut.
4. Suffixed form *bhu-tu‑. future , from Latin futūrus, "that is to be," future.
Zero-grade form *bhū‑ (< *bhuə‑).
1. 1. bower ¹, from Old English būr, "dwelling space," bower, room;
  2. neighbor , from Old English gebūr, dweller (ge‑, collective prefix; see kom );
  3. Boer , boor , from Middle Dutch gheboer, ghebuer, peasant. a-c all from Germanic *būram, dweller, especially farmer.
2. byre , from Old English bȳre, stall, hut, from Germanic *būrjam, dwelling.
3. bylaw , from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse bȳr, settlement, from Germanic *būwi‑.
4. Suffixed form *bhū-lo‑. phyle , phyletic , phylum ; phylogeny , from Greek phūlon, tribe, class, race, and phūlē, tribe, clan.
Zero-grade reduced suffixal form *-bhw‑, in Latin compounds.
1. Latin dubius, doubtful, and dubitāre, to doubt, from *du-bhw-io‑ (see dwo- ).
2. Latin probus, upright, from *pro-bhw-o‑, "growing well or straightforward" (see per ¹).
3. Latin superbus, superior, proud, from *super-bhw-o‑, "being above" (see uper ).
Possibly Germanic *baumaz (and *bagmaz), tree (? < "growing thing").
1. beam , from Old English bēam, tree, beam;
2. boom ², from Middle Dutch boom, tree;
3. bumpkin ¹, bumpkin ², from Flemish boom, tree.

||[Pokorny bheu‑ 146.]

r064_ ‌ ‌ bheug-
To bend; with derivatives referring to bent, pliable, or curved objects.
Derivatives include bagel , buxom , and bog.

Variant form *bheugh‑ in Germanic *beug‑.
1. 1. bee ², from Old English bēag, a ring;
  2. bagel , from Old High German boug, a ring. Both a and b from Germanic *baugaz.
2. 1. bow ³; akimbo , from Old English boga, a bow, arch;
  2. Germanic compound *elino-bugōn‑ (see el- );
  3. bow ¹, from a source akin to Middle Low German boog, bow of a boat;
  4. bowline , bowsprit , from Middle Low German bōch, bow of a boat. a-d all from Germanic *bugōn‑.
3. bow ², buxom , from Old English būgan, to bend, from Germanic būgan.
4. bail ³, from Middle English beil, a handle, perhaps from Old English *bēgel or from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish *böghil, both from Germanic *baugil‑.
5. bight , from Old English byht, a bend, angle, from Germanic *buhtiz.
bog , from Scottish and Irish Gaelic bog, soft, from Celtic *buggo‑, "flexible.".

||[Pokorny 3. bheug‑ 152.]

r065_ ‌ ‌ bhlē-
To blow. Contracted from *bhleh₁‑, or possibly lengthened grade *bhlēh₂‑ from alternative root *bhleh₂‑. Possibly identical to bhel- ³ II*bhlē‑ above.
Derivatives include blaze ³, flatus , and flavor.

blow ¹, from Old English blāwan, to blow, from Germanic suffixed form *blē-w‑.
1. bladder , from Old English blǣdre, blister, bladder;
2. blather , from Old Norse bladhra (noun), bladder, and bladhra (verb), to prattle. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *blēdram, "something blown up.".
1. blast , from Old English blǣst, a blowing, blast;
2. isinglass , from Middle Dutch blas(e), a bladder;
3. blasé , blaze ³, from Middle Dutch blāsen, to blow up, swell. a-c all from Germanic extended form *blēs‑.
Zero-grade form *bhl̥ə‑ (> *bhlā‑) flabellum , flageolet , flatulent , flatus , flavor ; afflatus , conflate , deflate , inflate , insufflate , soufflé , from Latin flāre, to blow.

|| ||[Pokorny 3. bhel‑ 120.]

r066_ ‌ ‌ bhleu-
To swell, well up, overflow. Extension of bhel- ².

Possibly Germanic *blaut‑. bloat , from Old Norse blautr, soft, wet.
Extended form *bhleug^w‑. fluctuate , fluent , fluid , flume , fluor , fluoro- , flush ², fluvial , flux ; affluent , confluent , effluent , effluvium , efflux , fluoride , fluviomarine , influence , influenza , influx , mellifluous , reflux , solifluction , superfluous , from Latin fluere, to flow, and -fluus, flowing.
Zero-grade form *bhlu‑. phlyctena , from Greek phlūein, phlūzein, to boil over.
Possibly Greek phloos, phloios, tree bark (< "swelling with growth") phloem .

||[Pokorny bhleu‑ 158.]

r067_ ‌ ‌ bhoso-
Naked.

bare ¹, from Old English bær, bare;
ballast , from Old Swedish and Old Danish bar, bare;
berserker , perhaps from Old Norse berr, bare. a-c all from Germanic *bazaz.

||[Pokorny bhoso-s 163.]

r068_ ‌ ‌ bhrāter-
Brother, male agnate.

1. brother , from Old English brōthor, brother;
2. bully ¹, from Middle Dutch broeder, brother. Both a and b from Germanic *brōthar‑.
Fra , fraternal , fraternity , fraternize , friar ; confrere , fratricide , from Latin frāter, brother.
phratry , from Greek phrātēr, fellow member of a clan.
pal , from Sanskrit bhrātā, bhrātar‑, brother.

||[Pokorny bhrāter‑ 163.]

r069_ ‌ ‌ bhreg-
To break.
Derivatives include breach , fraction , frail ¹, infringe , and suffrage.

1. break , from Old English brecan, to break;
2. breach , from Old English brēc, a breaking;
3. brash ², breccia , from Italian breccia, breccia, rubble, breach in a wall, from Old High German *brehha, from brehhan, to break;
4. bray ², from Old French breier, to break;
5. brioche , from Old French brier, dialectal variant of broyer, to knead. a-e all from Germanic *brekan.
1. bracken , brake ⁴, from Middle English brake(n), bracken, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *brakni, undergrowth;
2. brake ⁵, from Middle Low German brake, thicket. Both a and b from Germanic *brak‑, bushes (< "that which impedes motion").
brake ², from Middle Low German brake, flax brake, from Germanic *brāk‑, crushing instruments.
Nasalized zero-grade form *bhr̥-n-g‑. fractal , fracted , fraction , fractious , fracture , fragile , fragment , frail ¹, frangible ; anfractuous , chamfer , defray , diffraction , infract , infrangible , infringe , irrefrangible , ossifrage , refract , refrain ², refringent , sassafras , saxifrage , from Latin frangere, to break.
1. suffragan , suffrage , from Latin suffrāgium, the right to vote, from suffrāgārī, to vote for (? < "to use a broken piece of tile as a ballot");
2. irrefragable , from Latin refrāgārī, to vote against.

||[Pokorny 1. bhreg̑‑ 165 (butg̑ not on good evidence).]

r070_ ‌ ‌ bhreu-
Also bhreuə‑, bhreəu-.
To boil, bubble, effervesce, burn; with derivatives referring to cooking and brewing. Oldest form *bhreuh₁‑.
Derivatives include brew , bread , broth , brood , breed , ferment , and fervent.

1. brew , from Old English brēowan, to brew, from Germanic *breuwan, to brew.
2. bread , from Old English brēad, piece of food, bread, from Germanic *braudam, (cooked) food, (leavened) bread.
3. 1. broth , from Old English broth, broth;
  2. broil ²; embroil , imbroglio , from Vulgar Latin *brodum, broth. Both a and b from Germanic *brudam, broth.
Variant form *bhrē‑ (from *bhreə‑).
1. 1. brood , from Old English brōd, offspring, brood;
  2. breed , from Old English brēdan, to beget or cherish offspring, breed, from Germanic denominative *brōdjan, to rear young. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *brōd-ō, "a warming," hatching, rearing of young.
2. 1. bratwurst , sauerbraten , from Old High German brāt, brāto, roast meat;
  2. brawn , from Old French braon, meat. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *brēd-ōn‑, roast flesh. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *brēdan, to warm.
Variant form *bhres‑.
1. braise , braze ², brazier ², breeze ², bresaola , from Old French brese, burning coal, ember;
2. braciola , from Italian dialectal braṣa, burning coal
3. brazilwood , from Old Spanish brasa, burning coals. a-c all from Germanic *bres‑.
Reduced form *bher‑, especially in derivatives referring to fermentation.
1. 1. Suffixed form *bher-men‑, yeast. barm , barmy , from Old English beorma, yeast, from Germanic *bermōn‑;
  2. further suffixed form *bhermen-to‑. ferment , from Latin fermentum, yeast.
2. Extended form *bherw‑. fervent , fervid , fervor ; defervescence , effervesce , from Latin fervēre, to be boiling or fermenting.
As a very archaic word for a spring.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhru-n(e)n‑. bourn ¹, burn ², from Old English burn, burna, spring, stream, from Germanic *brunnōn‑.
2. Suffixed form *bhrēw-r̥. phreatic , from Greek phrear, spring.

||[Pokorny bh(e)reu‑ 143, 2.bher‑ 132.]

r071_ ‌ ‌ bhrū-
Eyebrow. Oldest form *bhruh_x‑, becoming *bhrū.

brow , from Old English brū‑, eyebrow, eyelid, eyelash, from Germanic *brūs.
Possibly in the sense of a beam of wood, and perhaps a log bridge. bridge ¹, from Old English brycg(e), bridge, from Germanic *brugjō (with cognates in Celtic and Slavic).

||[Pokorny 1. bhrū‑ 172, 2.bhrū‑ 173.]

r072_ ‌ ‌ dā-
To divide. Oldest form *deh₂‑, colored to *dah₂‑, becoming *dā‑.
Derivatives include democracy , epidemic , demon , and time.

Suffixed form *dā-mo‑, perhaps "division of society." deme , demos , demotic ; demagogue , demiurge , democracy , demography , endemic , epidemic , pandemic , from Greek dēmos, people, land.
Variant *dai‑, from extended form *daəi‑, with zero-grade *dī‑ (< *diə‑, metathesized from *dəi‑).
1. Root form *dai‑. geodesy , from Greek daiesthai, to divide.
2. Suffixed form *dai-mon‑, divider, provider. daimon , demon , from Greek daimōn, divinity.
3. Suffixed variant form *dī-ti‑.
  1. tide ¹; eventide , from Old English tīd, time, season;
  2. tide ², from Old English denominative tīdan, to happen (< "to occur in time");
  3. tidings , from Old Norse tīdhr, occurring;
  4. Yahrzeit , zeitgeber , Zeitgeist , from Old High German zīt, time. a-d all from Germanic *tīdiz, division of time.
4. Suffixed variant form *dī-mon‑. time , from Old English tīma, time, period, from Germanic *tīmōn‑.

||[Pokorny dā : də‑ 175.]

r073_ ‌ ‌ dail-
To divide. Northern Indo-European root extended from *da(h₂)i‑ (see dā- ).

deal ¹, from Old English dǣlan, to share, from Germanic *dailjan.
dole ¹, from Old English dāl, portion, lot, from Germanic *dailaz.
ordeal , from Old English ordāl, trial by ordeal, from Germanic prefixed form *uz-dailjam, "a portioning out," judgment (*uz‑, out; see ud- ).
firkin , from Middle Dutch deel, part, from Germanic *dailiz.

|| ||[Pokorny dā : də‑ 175.]

r074_ ‌ ‌ daiwer-
Husband's brother.

: levirate , from Latin lēvir, husband's brother.

||[Pokorny dāiu̯ēr 179.]

r075_ ‌ ‌ dakru-
Tear. Oldest form *dak̑ru‑, becoming *dakru‑ in centum languages.

1. tear ², from Old English tēar, tehher, tear;
2. train oil , from Middle Dutch trane, tear, drop. Both a and b from Germanic *tahr‑, *tagr‑.
Suffixed form *dakru-mā‑. lachrymal , from Latin lacrima (Archaic Latin dacruma), tear.

||[Pokorny dak̑ru‑ 179.]

r076_ ‌ ‌ de-
Demonstrative stem, base of prepositions and adverbs.

Form *dō (possibly instrumental).
1. 1. to , too , from Old English tō, to;
  2. tsimmes , from Old High German zuo, ze, to;
  3. tattoo ¹, from Middle Dutch toe, to, shut. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *tō.
2. Italic *dō in compound *k^wām-dō (see k^wo- ).
Form *dē (possibly instrumental), perhaps source of forms meaning "from, out of."
1. de- , from Latin dē, dē‑, from;
2. deteriorate , from Latin dēterior, worse, from suffixed form *dē-tero‑;
3. compound *dē-bel-i‑ (see bel- );
4. Celtic *dī, from, in compound *eks-dī-sedo‑ (see sed- ).

||[Pokorny de‑ 181.]

r077_ ‌ ‌ deik-
To show, pronounce solemnly; also in derivatives referring to the directing of words or objects. Oldest form *deik̑‑, becoming *deik‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include teach , toe , addict , preach , judge , revenge , and disk.

Variant *deig‑.
1. O-grade form *doig‑.
  1. teach , from Old English tǣcan, to show, instruct, from Germanic *taikjan, to show;
  2. 1. token , from Old English tācen, tācn, sign, mark;
    2. betoken , from Old English tācnian, to signify;
    3. tetchy , from Gothic taikns, sign;
    4. tachisme , from Old French tache, teche, mark, stain. (i)-(iv) all from Germanic *taiknam.
2. Zero-grade form *dig‑. digit , from Latin digitus, finger (< "pointer," "indicator").
Basic form *deik‑.
1. Possibly o-grade form *doik‑. toe , from Old English tā, tahe, toe, from Germanic *taihwō.
2. Basic form *deik‑. dictate , diction , dictum , ditto , ditty ; addict , benediction , condition , contradict , edict , fatidic , herb bennet , indict , indiction , indite , interdict , juridical , jurisdiction , maledict , malison , predict , valediction , verdict , veridical , voir dire , from Latin dīcere, to say, tell.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *dik-ā‑. abdicate , dedicate , preach , predicament , predicate , from Latin dicāre, to proclaim.
4. Agential suffix *-dik‑.
  1. index , indicate , from Latin index, indicator, forefinger (in‑, toward; see en );
  2. judge , judicial ; prejudice , from Latin iūdex (< *yewes-dik‑), judge, "one who shows or pronounces the law" (iūs, law; see yewes- );
  3. vendetta , vindicate ; avenge , revenge , from Latin vindex (first element obscure), surety, claimant, avenger.
5. deictic , deixis ; apodictic , paradigm , policy ², from Greek deiknunai, to show, and noun deigma (*deik-mn̥), sample, pattern.
6. Zero-grade form *dik‑. disk ; dictyosome , from suffixed form *dik-skos, from Greek dikein, to throw (< "to direct an object").
7. Form *dikā‑. dicast ; syndic , theodicy , from Greek dikē, justice, right, court case.

||[Pokorny deik̑‑ 188.]

r078_ ‌ ‌ dek-
To take, accept. Oldest form *dek̑‑, becoming *dek‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include decent , paradox , and disdain.

Suffixed (stative) form *dek-ē‑. decent , from Latin decēre, to be fitting (< "to be acceptable").
Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *dok-eye‑.
1. docent , docile , doctor , doctrine , document , from Latin docēre, to teach (< "to cause to accept");
2. dogma , dogmatic ; chionodoxa , Docetism , doxology , heterodox , orthodox , paradox , from Greek dokein, to appear, seem, think (< "to cause to accept or be accepted").
Suffixed form *dek-es‑.
1. décor , decorate , from Latin decus, grace, ornament;
2. decorous , from Latin decor, seemliness, elegance, beauty.
Suffixed form *dek-no‑. dainty , deign , dignity ; condign , dignify , disdain , indign , indignant , indignation , from Latin dignus, worthy, deserving, fitting.
Reduplicated form *di-dk-ske‑. disciple , discipline , from Latin discere, to learn.
dowel , pandect , synecdoche , from Greek dekhesthai, to accept.
Suffixed o-grade form *dok-o‑. diplodocus , from Greek dokos, beam, support.

||[Pokorny 1. dek̑‑ 189.]

r079_ ‌ ‌ dekm̥
Ten. Oldest form *dek̑m̥, becoming *dekm̥ in centum languages.
Derivatives include ten , December , decimate , dean , hundred , century , and hecatomb.

Basic form *dekm̥.
1. 1. ten , from Old English tīen, ten;
  2. Old Norse tjan, ten, in compound āttjān (see oktō(u) ). Both a and b from Germanic *tehun.
2. eighteen , fifteen , fourteen , nineteen , seventeen , sixteen , thirteen , from Old English suffix -tēne, -tīne, -tȳne, ten, -teen, from Germanic *tehan.
3. deci- , decimal , decimate , decuple , decurion , dicker , dime ; December , decemvir , decennary , decennium , decussate , dozen , duodecimal , octodecimo , sextodecimo , from Latin decem, ten.
4. denarius , denary , denier ², dinar , from irregular Latin distributive dēnī, by tens, ten each (formed by analogy with nōnī, nine each).
5. dean , deca- , decade , doyen ; decagon , Decalogue , dodecagon , from Greek deka, ten.
Germanic *tigu‑, ten, decad (of uncertain formation, as though < *deku‑), in compound *twēgentig (see dwo- ).
Ordinal number *dekm̥to‑. tenth , tithe , from Old English teogotha, tēotha, tenth, from Germanic *teguntha‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *-dkm̥-tā̆, reduced to *-km̥tā̆, and lengthened o-grade form *-dkōm-tā̆, reduced to *-kontā̆.
1. nonagenarian , octogenarian , Septuagint , sexagenary , from Latin -gintā, ten times.
2. Pentecost , from Greek *-konta, ten times.
Suffixed zero-grade form *dkm̥-tom, hundred, reduced to *km̥tom.
1. hundred , from Old English hundred, from dialectal North and West Germanic *hund(a)-rada‑ (-rada‑, from Germanic *radam, number; see ar- ), from Germanic *hundam, hundred.
2. Germanic compound *thūs-hundi, "swollen hundred," thousand (see teuə- ).
3. cent , cental , centavo , centenarian , centenary , centesimal , centi- , centime , centner , centum , century ; centennial , cinquecento , percent , quattrocento , seicento , sen ², seniti , sexcentenary , trecento , from Latin centum, hundred.
4. hecatomb , hecto- , from Greek hekaton, a hundred (? dissimilated from *hem-katon, one hundred; *hem‑, one; see sem- ¹).
5. satem , from Avestan satəm, hundred.

||[Pokorny dek̑m̥ 191.]
See also compound root wīkm̥tī- .

r080_ ‌ ‌ deks-
Right (opposite left); hence, south (from the viewpoint of one facing east). Oldest form *dek̑s‑, becoming *deks‑ in centum languages. Suffixed form *deks(i)-tero‑.

: destrier , dexter , dexterity , dextro- ; ambidextrous , from Latin dexter, right, on the right side.

|| ||[Pokorny 1. dek̑‑ 189.]
Compare ner- ¹.

r081_ ‌ ‌ del-¹
Long.
Derivatives include linger , Lent , longitude , and lunge.

Probably extended and suffixed zero-grade form *dlon-gho‑.
1. 1. long ¹; along , longshore , from Old English lang, long, long;
  2. langlauf , from Old High German lang, long;
  3. belong , from Old English gelang, along;
  4. long ², from Old English denominative langian, to grow longer, yearn for, from Germanic *langōn;
  5. linger , from Old English lengan, to prolong (possibly influenced by Old Norse lengja, to lengthen), from Germanic *langjan, to make long;
  6. Lombard , from Latin compound Longobardus, Langobardus (with Germanic ethnic name *Bardi). a-f all from Germanic *langaz, long.
2. 1. length , from Old English lengthu, length;
  2. Lent , from Old English lengten, lencten, spring, Lent, from West Germanic *langitinaz, lengthening of day;
  3. ling ¹, from Middle English lenge, ling, ling, from a Low German source akin to Dutch lenghe, linghe, "long one." a-c all from Germanic abstract noun *langithō.
3. longeron , longitude , lounge ; eloign , elongate , longevity , lunge , oblong , prolong , purloin , from Latin longus, long.
Possibly suffixed variant form *dl̥ə-gho‑. dolichocephalic , dolichocranial , from Greek dolikhos, long.

||[Pokorny 5. del‑ 196.]

r082_ ‌ ‌ del-²
To recount, count. O-grade form *dol‑.

tell ¹, from Old English tellan, to count, recount, from Germanic *taljan.
tall , from Old English getæl, quick, ready, from West Germanic *(ge‑)tala‑.
1. tale , from Old English talu, story;
2. Taal ², from Middle Dutch tāle, speech, language. Both a and b from Germanic *talō.
talk , from Middle English talken, to talk, from a source probably akin to Old English denominative talian, to tell, relate.
Perhaps Greek dolos, ruse, snare dolerite , sedulous .

||[Pokorny 1. del‑ 193.]

r083_ ‌ ‌ dem-
House, household.
Derivatives include dome , domestic , and timber.

Suffixed o-grade form *dom-o‑, *dom-u‑, house.
1. dome , domestic , domicile ; major-domo , from Latin domus, house;
2. suffixed form *dom-o-no‑. dame , Dan ², danger , Dom , domain , domaine , dominate , dominical , dominie , dominion , domino ¹, domino ², don ¹, Donna , dungeon ; belladonna , duende , Madam , Madame , Mademoiselle , Madonna , predominate , from Latin dominus, master of a household (feminine domina).
Possibly suffixed lengthened-grade form *dōm-n̥. dome , from Greek dōma, house.
Compound *dems-pot‑, "house-master" (*-pot‑, powerful; see poti- ). despot , from Greek despotēs.
Root form *dem(ə₂)‑, to build (possibly a separate root).
1. timber , from Old English timber, building material, lumber, from Germanic *timram;
2. toft , from Old Norse topt, homestead, from Germanic *tumftō.

||[Pokorny dem‑ 198.]

r084_ ‌ ‌ demə-
To constrain, force, especially to break in (horses). Oldest form *demh₂‑.

Suffixed o-grade form *dom(ə)-o‑. tame , from Old English tam, domesticated, from Germanic *tamaz.
O-grade form *domə‑. daunt ; indomitable , from Latin domāre, to tame, subdue.
Zero-grade form *dm̥ə‑. adamant , diamond , from Greek damān, to tame (> adamās, unconquerable, from *n̥-dm̥ə-nt‑).

||[Pokorny (demə‑) 199.]

r085_ ‌ ‌ dent-
Tooth. Originally *h₁d-ent‑, "biting," present participle of ed- in the earlier meaning "to bite."

O-grade form *dont‑. tooth , from Old English tōth, tooth, from Germanic *tanthuz.
Zero-grade form *dn̥t‑. tusk , from Old English tūsc, tūx, canine tooth, from Germanic *tunth-sk‑.
Full-grade form *dent‑. dental , dentate , denti- , denticle , dentist ; dandelion , edentate , edentulous , indent ¹, indenture , trident , from Latin dēns (stem dent‑), tooth.
O-grade variant form *ədont‑, ultimately becoming odont‑ in Greek -odon , -odont , odonto- ; dimetrodon , diprotodon , mastodon , from Greek odōn, odous, tooth.

|| ||[Pokorny ed‑ 287.]

r086_ ‌ ‌ der-
To split, peel, flay; with derivatives referring to skin and leather.

tear ¹, from Old English teran, to tear, from Germanic *teran.
tart ¹, from Old English teart, sharp, severe, from Germanic *ter-t‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *dr̥-tom, "something separated or discarded." turd , from Old English tord, turd, from Germanic *turdam, turd.
Reduplicated form *de-dr-u‑. tetter , from Old English tet(e)r, eruption, skin disease.
Suffixed form *der-mn̥. -derm , derma ¹, -derma , dermato- ; epidermis , from Greek derma, skin.
dahl , Dalit , dhurrie , from Sanskrit darati, he splits.

||[Pokorny 4. der‑ 206.]

r087_ ‌ ‌ derk-
To see. Oldest form *derk̑‑, becoming *derk‑ in centum languages.

: Suffixed zero-grade form *dr̥k-on(t)‑. dragon , dragoon , drake ², tarragon ; rankle , from Greek drakō, serpent, dragon (< "monster with the evil eye").

||[Pokorny derk̑‑ 213.]

r088_ ‌ ‌ deru-
Also dreu-.
To be firm, solid, steadfast; hence specialized senses "wood," "tree," and derivatives referring to objects made of wood.
Derivatives include tree , trust , betroth , endure , and druid.

Suffixed variant form *drew-o‑.
1. tree , from Old English trēow, tree, from Germanic *trewam;
2. truce , from Old English trēow, pledge, from Germanic *treuwō.
Variant form dreu‑.
1. TRUE , from Old English trēowe, firm, true;
2. trow , from Old English trēowian, trūwian, to trust;
3. trig ¹, from Old Norse tryggr, firm, true;
4. troth , truth ; betroth , from Old English trēowth, faith, loyalty, truth, from Germanic abstract noun *treuwithō;
5. trust , from Old Norse traust, confidence, firmness, from Germanic abstract noun *traustam;
6. tryst , from Old French triste, waiting place (< "place where one waits trustingly"), probably from a source akin to Old Norse denominative treysta, to trust, make firm. a-f all from Germanic *treuwaz.
Variant form *drou‑. tray , from Old English trēg, trīg, wooden board, from Germanic *traujam.
Suffixed zero-grade form *dru-ko‑.
1. trough , from Old English trog, wooden vessel, tray;
2. trug , from Old Norse trog, trough. Both a and b from Germanic *trugaz.
Suffixed zero-grade form *dru-mo‑.
1. trim , from Old English trum, firm, strong;
2. shelter , from Old English truma, troop. Both a and b from Germanic *trum‑.
Variant form *derw‑. tar ¹, from Old English te(o)ru, resin, pitch (obtained from the pine tree), from Germanic *terw‑.
Suffixed variant form *drū-ro‑. dour , duramen , duress , durum ; durain , dura mater , endure , indurate , obdurate , from Latin dūrus, hard (many of whose English derivatives represent a semantic cross with Latin dūrāre, to last long; see deuə- ).
Lengthened zero-grade form *drū‑. drupe , dryad ; Dryopithecus , germander , hamadryad , from Greek drūs, oak.
Reduplicated form *der-drew‑, dissimilated with suffix in *der-drew-on. dendro- , dendron ; philodendron , rhododendron , from Greek dendron, tree.
druid , from Latin druides, druids, probably from Celtic compound *dru-wid‑, "strong seer" (*wid‑, seeing; see weid- ), the Celtic priestly caste.
O-grade form *doru‑. deodar , from Sanskrit dāru, wood, timber.

||[Pokorny deru‑ 214.]

r089_ ‌ ‌ deu-¹
To lack, be wanting.

Possibly suffixed form *deu-s‑.
1. tire ¹, from Old English tēorian, tyrian, to fail, tire (< "to fall behind"), from Germanic *teuzōn;
2. deontology , from Greek dein, to lack, want.
Suffixed form *deu-tero‑. deutero- ; deuteragonist , deuterium , Deuteronomy , from Greek deuteros, "missing," next, second.

||[Pokorny 3. deu‑ 219.] (For suffixed zero-grade form *du-s‑, combining form of *dew-es‑, a lack, see dus-.) || ||[Pokorny 3.deu‑ 219.]

r090_ ‌ ‌ deu-²
To do, perform, show favor, revere.
Derivatives include embellish , and dynamite.

Suffixed form *dw-eno‑. bonbon , bonito , bonny , bonus , boon ², bounty ; bonanza , bonhomie , debonair , from Latin bonus, good (< "useful, efficient, working").
Adverbial form *dw-enē. benediction , benefaction , benefactor , benefic , beneficence , benefit , benevolent , benign , ben trovato , herb bennet , from Latin bene, well.
Diminutive *dw-en-elo‑. beau , beauty , belle ; beldam , belladonna , belvedere , embellish , from Latin bellus, handsome, pretty, fine.
Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *dw-eye‑. beatitude ; beatific , beatify , from Latin beāre, to make blessed.
Possible (but unlikely for formal and semantic reasons) suffixed zero-grade form *du-nə‑. dynamic , dynamite , dynast , dynasty ; aerodyne , from Greek dunasthai, to be able.

||[Pokorny 2. (deu‑) 218.]

r091_ ‌ ‌ deuə-
Also dwaə-.
Long (in duration). Oldest form *deuh₂‑ with variant (metathesized) *dweh₂‑, the latter colored to *dwah₂‑, becoming *dwā‑. Suffixed zero-grade form *dū-ro‑ (< *duə-ro‑, oldest form *duh₂-ro‑).

: durable , durance , duration , during ; perdurable , thermoduric , from Latin dūrāre, to last.

|| ||[Pokorny 3. deu‑ 219.]

r092_ ‌ ‌ deuk-
To lead.
Derivatives include wanton , team , duke , subdue , and educate.

1. tug ; wanton , from Old English tēon, to pull, draw, lead;
2. Zugunruhe , zugzwang , from Old High German ziohan, to pull. Both a and b from Germanic *teuhan.
Suffixed zero-grade form *duk-ā‑. tow ¹, taut , from Old English togian, to draw, drag, from Germanic *tugōn.
Suffixed o-grade form *douk-eyo‑. tie , from Old English *tīegan, tīgan, to bind.
Suffixed o-grade form *douk-mo‑. team , from Old English tēam, descendant, family, race, brood, team, from Germanic *tau(h)maz.
teem ¹, from Old English tēman, tīeman, to beget, from Germanic denominative *tau(h)mjan.
Basic form *deuk‑. doge , douche , ducal , ducat , duce , duchess , duchy , duct , ductile , duke ; abducens , abduct , adduce , aqueduct , circumduction , con ³, condottiere , conduce , conduct , deduce , deduct , educe , endue , induce , introduce , produce , redoubt , reduce , seduction , subduction , subdue , traduce , transducer , from Latin dūcere, to lead.
Suffixed zero-grade form *duk-ā‑. educate , from Latin ēducāre, to lead out, bring up (ē‑, < ex‑, out; see eghs ).

||[Pokorny deuk‑ 220.]

r093_ ‌ ‌ dhē-
To set, put. Oldest form *dheh₁‑, becoming *dhē‑.
Derivatives include deed , doom , fashion , defeat , feckless , sacrifice , satisfy , face , and synthesis.

Basic form *dhē‑.
1. Suffixed form *dhē-ti‑, "thing laid down or done, law, deed." deed ; indeed , from Old English dǣd, doing, deed, from Germanic *dēdiz.
2. Suffixed form *dhē-k‑. theca , tick ³; amphithecium , apothecary , apothecium , bibliotheca , bodega , boutique , cleistothecium , endothecium , perithecium , from Greek thēkē, receptacle.
3. Basic form *dhē‑. bard ², purdah , from Old Persian dā‑, to place.
4. Suffixed form *dhē-to‑, set down, created, in Old Iranian compound *khvatō-dāta‑ (see s(w)e- ).
O-grade form *dhō‑.
1. do ¹; fordo , from Old English dōn, to do, from Germanic *dōn.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *dhō-men‑. abdomen , from Latin abdōmen, belly, abdomen, perhaps "part placed away, concealed part" (ab‑, away; see apo- ).
3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhō-mo‑.
  1. doom , from Old English dōm, judgment (< "thing set or put down");
  2. -dom , from Old English -dōm, abstract suffix indicating state, condition, or power;
  3. Old Norse -dōmr, condition, in compound hōrdōmr (see kā- );
  4. duma , dumka , from Russian Duma, Duma, from a Germanic source akin to Gothic dōms, judgment;
  5. deem , from Old English dēman, to judge, from Germanic denominative dōmjan. a-e all from Germanic dōmaz.
4. Suffixed o-grade form *dhō-t‑ in compound *sakro-dhōt‑ (see sak- ).
Zero-grade form *dhə‑.
1. 1. Prefixed form *kom-dhə‑. abscond , incondite , recondite , sconce ², from Latin condere, to put together, establish, preserve (*kom, together; see kom );
  2. prefixed and suffixed form *kom-dh(ə)-yo‑. condiment , salmagundi , from Latin condīre, to season, flavor;
  3. compound *kred-dhə‑ (see kerd- );
  4. compound suffixed form *g^wr̥ə-dh(ə)-o‑ (see g^werə- ²).
2. Suffixed zero-grade form dhə-k‑.
  1. -facient , fact , faction ¹, -faction , factitious , factitive , factor , factory , faena , fashion , feasible , feat ¹, feature , fetish , -fic , -fy , hacienda ; affair , affect ¹, affect ², affection , amplify , artifact , artifice , beatific , benefaction , benefic , benefice , beneficence , benefit , chafe , comfit , confect , confetti , counterfeit , defeasance , defeat , defect , deficient , discomfit , edifice , edify , effect , efficacious , efficient , facsimile , factotum , feckless , forfeit , infect , justify , malefactor , malfeasance , manufacture , misfeasance , modify , mollify , nidify , notify , nullify , officinal , orifice , perfect , petrify , pluperfect , pontifex , prefect , proficient , profit , putrefy , qualify , rarefy , rectify , refect , refectory , rubefacient , sacrifice , satisfy , spinifex , suffice , sufficient , surfeit , tubifex , tumefacient , vivify , from Latin facere (< *fak-yo‑), to do, make, and Latin combining form -fex (< *-fak-s), "maker";
  2. façade , face , facet , facial , facies ; deface , efface , surface , from Latin derivative faciēs, shape, face (< "form imposed on something");
  3. office , from Latin compound officium (< *opi-fici-om), service, duty, business, performance of work (*opi‑, work; see op- );
  4. further suffixed form *dhə-k-li‑. facile , facilitate , faculty , difficulty , from Latin facilis (< Archaic Latin facul), feasible, easy.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhə-s‑ (probably identical with zero-grade of dhēs- ). nefarious , from Latin fās, divine law, right.
4. multifarious , omnifarious , from Latin -fāriam, adverbial suffix, as in bifāriam, in two places, parts, double, from *dwi-dh(ə)‑, "making two" (*dwi‑, two; see dwo- ).
5. Reduplicated form *dhi-dhə‑. thesis , thetic ; anathema , antithesis , diathesis , epenthesis , epithet , hypothecate , hypothesis , metathesis , parenthesis , prosthesis , prothesis , synthesis , from Greek tithenai, to put, with zero-grade noun thesis (*dhə-ti‑), a placing, and verbal adjective thetos (*dhə-to‑), placed.
6. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhə-mn̥. thematic , theme ; speleothem , from Greek thema, "thing placed," proposition.
7. Reduplicated form *dhe-dhē‑. samhita , sandhi , from Sanskrit dadhāti, he places (past participle -hita‑, from suffixed zero-grade *dhə-to‑).
8. Reduced form *dh‑ in compound *au-dh‑ (see au- ).

||[Pokorny 2. dhē‑ 235.]

r094_ ‌ ‌ dheg^wh-
To burn, warm.

Suffixed o-grade (causative) form *dhog^wh-eyo‑. foment , fomite , from Latin fovē, to warm, cherish, foment.
Suffixed basic form dheg^wh-rā‑. tephra , from Greek tephrā, ash.

||[Pokorny dheg^u̯h‑ 240.]

r095_ ‌ ‌ dhē(i)-
To suck. Oldest form *dheh₁(i)‑, becoming *dhē(i)‑.
Derivatives include female , fawn ², fetus , fennel , and affiliate.

Suffixed reduced form *dhē-mnā‑. female , feminine , femme ; effeminate , from Latin fēmina, woman (< "she who suckles").
Suffixed reduced form *dhē-to‑. fawn ², fetal , fetus ; effete , feticide , superfetate , from Latin fētus, pregnancy, childbearing, offspring, with adjective fētus, fēta, pregnant.
Suffixed reduced form *dhē-kwondo‑. fecund , from Latin fēcundus, fruitful.
Suffixed reduced form *dhē-no‑. fennel , finochio ; fenugreek , sainfoin , from Latin fēnum, faenum, hay (< "produce").
Probably suffixed zero-grade form *dhī-lyo‑ (< *dhiə-lyo‑) filial , filiation , fils ¹; affiliate , hidalgo , from Latin fīlius, son, and fīlia, daughter (but these are conceivably from the root bheuə- ).
Suffixed reduced form *dhē-lo‑. fellatio , from Latin fēlāre, fellāre, to suck.
Suffixed reduced form *dhē-l-īk‑. felicitate , felicity ; felicific , infelicity , from Latin fēlīx, fruitful, fertile, lucky, happy.
Suffixed reduced form *dhē-lā‑. endothelium , epithelium , mesothelium , from Greek thēlē, nipple.
Suffixed reduced form *dhē-l-u‑. theelin , from Greek thēlus, female.

||[Pokorny dhē(i)‑ 241.]

r096_ ‌ ‌ dheigh-
To form, build. Oldest form *dheig̑h‑, becoming *dheigh‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include dairy , lady , dough , and paradise.

dairy , from Old English dǣge, bread kneader, from Germanic *daigjōn‑.
lady , from Old English compound hlǣfdige, mistress of a household (< "bread kneader"; hlāf, bread, loaf), from Germanic *dīg‑.
Suffixed o-grade form *dhoigh-o‑.
1. dough , from Old English dāg, dough;
2. teiglach , from Old High German teic, dough. Both a and b from Germanic *daigaz.
Suffixed zero-grade form *dhigh-ūrā‑. figure , figurine ; configure , disfigure , prefigure , transfigure , from Latin figūra, form, shape (< "result of kneading").
Nasalized zero-grade form *dhi-n-gh‑. fainéant , faint , feign , feint , fictile , fiction , figment ; effigy , from Latin fingere, to shape.
Probable nasalized zero-grade form *dhi-n-g(h)‑. thigmotaxis , thixotropy , from Greek thinganein, to touch.
Suffixed o-grade form *dhoigh-o‑. paradise , from Avestan daēza‑, wall (originally made of clay or mud bricks).

||[Pokorny dheig̑h‑ 244.]

r097_ ‌ ‌ dher-
To hold firmly, support.
Derivatives include infirmary , and throne.

Suffixed form *dher-mo‑. farm , fermata , firm ¹, firm ², firmament ; affirm , confirm , furl , infirm , infirmary , from Latin firmus, firm, strong.
Perhaps extended form *dhergh‑, seen by some as the source of Latin fortis, strong, but this is more likely from bhergh- ².
Suffixed zero-grade form *dhr-ono‑. throne , from Greek thronos, seat, throne (< "support").
Suffixed form *dher-mn̥. dharma , from Sanskrit dharma, statute, law (< "that which is established firmly").
Suffixed form *dher-eno‑. dharna , from Prakrit dharaṇa, a holding firm.
Suffixed o-grade form *dhor-o‑. churidar , sirdar , tahsildar , zamindar , from Iranian dāra‑, holding, whence Persian -dār.

||[Pokorny 2. dher‑ 252.]

r098_ ‌ ‌ dhers-
To venture, be bold. O-grade form *dhors‑ and zero-grade form *dhr̥s‑.

: dare , durst , from Old English dearr and durst, first and third person singular present and past indicative of durran, to venture, respectively from Germanic *dors‑ and *durs‑.

||[Pokorny dhers‑ 259.]

r099_ ‌ ‌ dhēs-
Root of words in religious concepts. Oldest form *dheh₁s‑, becoming *dhēs‑. Possibly an extension of dhē- .
Derivatives include feast , fanatic , atheism , and enthusiasm.

Suffixed form *dhēs-yā‑. fair ², feria , from Latin fēriae (< Archaic Latin fēsiae), holidays.
Suffixed form *dhēs-to‑. feast , fest , festal , festival , festive , festoon , fete , fiesta ; Oktoberfest , from Latin fēstus, festive.
Suffixed zero-grade form *dhəs-no‑. fanatic ; profane , from Latin fānum, temple.
Suffixed zero-grade form *dhəs-o‑. theo- ; apotheosis , atheism , enthusiasm , henotheism , pantheon , polytheism , tiffany , from Greek theos (< *thes-os), god.

||[Pokorny dhēs‑ 259.]

r100_ ‌ ‌ dheu-¹
To flow.

dew , from Old English dēaw, dew;
sundew , from Middle Dutch dau, dew;
Germanic compound *melith-dauwaz (see melit- ). a-c all from Germanic *dauwaz, dew.

||[Pokorny 1. dheu‑ 259.]

r101_ ‌ ‌ dheu-²
To die. Also dheuə- (oldest form *dheuh₂‑).

Suffixed o-grade form *dhou-to‑. dead , from Old English dēad, dead, from Germanic *daudaz.
Suffixed o-grade form *dhou-tu‑. death , from Old English dēath, death, from Germanic *dauthuz.
Suffixed o-grade form *dhow-yo‑. die ¹, from Old Norse deyja, to die.
Extended zero-grade form *dhuəi‑, metathesized to *dhwiə‑, contracted to *dhwī‑, whence suffixed form *dhwī-no‑. dwindle , from Old English dwīnan, to diminish, languish, from Germanic *dwīnan.

||[Pokorny 2. dheu‑ 260. ]
Compare dheuə- .

r102_ ‌ ‌ dheub-
Also dheubh-.
Deep, hollow.

deep , depth , from Old English dēop, deep, from Germanic *deupaz.
dip , from Old English dyppan, to immerse, dip, from Germanic expressive denominative *duppjan.
Parallel root form *dheubh‑. dive ¹, from Old English dȳfan, to dip, and dūfan, to sink, dive, from Germanic verb *dūbjan, from *deub‑, *dub‑.
Suffixed parallel root form *dhū̆bh-(o)n‑, with expressive variants. python , Python ¹, Typhon , from Greek Pūthōn and Tuphōn, mythical monsters, from *dhub(h)-n‑ and *b(h)ud(h)-n‑, which already in Indo-European were doublets by inversion, referring to "bottom," "foundation," "depths," and the mythological monsters that inhabited them.

||[Pokorny dheu-b‑ 267.]

r103_ ‌ ‌ dheuə-
To close, finish, come full circle. Oldest form *dheuh₂‑. Probably related to dheu- ² , "to die."

Suffixed zero-grade form *dhū-no‑ (< *dhuə-no‑), enclosed, fortified place; hill-fort.
1. 1. down ¹, down ³, from Old English dūn, hill;
  2. dune , from Middle Dutch dūne, sandy hill. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *dūnaz, possibly from *dhū-no‑.
2. town , from Old English tūn, enclosed place, homestead, village, from Germanic *tūnaz, fortified place, borrowed from Celtic *dū-no‑, hill, stronghold.
Suffixed form *dhū-nes‑ (< *dhuə-nes‑) funeral , from Latin fūnus, funeral.

|| ||[Pokorny 4. dheu‑ 261.]

r104_ ‌ ‌ dheugh-
To produce something of utility.

doughty , from Old English dyhtig, dohtig, strong (< "productive"), from Germanic extended form *duht‑.
Suffixed form *dheugh-os‑. Heptateuch , Hexateuch , Pentateuch , from Greek teukhos (< *theukhos), gear, anything produced, tool, container, scroll.

||[Pokorny dheugh‑ 271.]

r105_ ‌ ‌ dhghem-
Earth. Oldest form *dhg̑hem‑, becoming *dhghem‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include bridegroom , chameleon , and homicide.

Suffixed zero-grade form *(dh)ghm̥-on‑, "earthling." bridegroom , from Old English guma, man, from Germanic *gumōn‑.
O-grade form *dh(e)ghom‑. chthonic ; allochthon , autochthon , from Greek khthōn, earth.
Zero-grade form *dhghm̥‑. chamaephyte , chameleon , chamomile , germander , from Greek khamai, on the ground.
Suffixed o-grade form *(dh)ghom-o‑. humble , humiliate , humility , humus ¹; exhume , inhume , transhumance , from Latin humus, earth.
Suffixed o-grade form *(dh)ghom-on‑, "earthling."
1. homage , hombre ¹, hominid , hominin , Homo , homunculus , ombre , omerta ; bonhomie , homicide , from Latin homō, human being, man;
2. human , humane , from Latin hūmānus, human, kind, humane (in part from dhghem- ).
Suffixed form *(dh)ghem-yā‑. chernozem , sierozem , zemstvo , from Old Russian zemĭ, land, earth.
Full-grade form *(dh)ghem‑. zamindar , from Persian zamīn, earth, land.

||[Pokorny g̑hđem‑ 414.]

r106_ ‌ ‌ dhgh(y)es-
Yesterday. Oldest form *dhg̑h(y)es‑, becoming *dhgh(y)es‑ in centum languages. Suffixed (comparative) form *(dh)ghes-ter‑.

: yester- , yesterday , from Old English geostran, giestran, "yester‑," from Germanic *ges-ter‑.

||[Pokorny g̑hđi̯és 416.]

r107_ ‌ ‌ dhīg^w-
To stick, fix.

1. dike ¹, ditch , from Old English dīc, trench, moat;
2. dig , from Middle English diggen, to dig, from a source perhaps akin to Old French digue, trench. Both a and b from Germanic *dīk‑.
fibula , fichu , finca , fishgig , fix , fixate , fixity , fixture ; affix , antefix , crucify , infibulate , infix , microfiche , prefix , suffix , transfix , from Latin fīgere, to fasten, fix, and from fībula, clasp (shortened from *fīvibula, from fīvere, archaic variant of fīgere).

||[Pokorny dhēig^u̯‑ 243.]

r108_ ‌ ‌ dhreg-
To draw, glide. Oldest form *dhreg̑‑, becoming *dhreg‑ in centum languages.

drink , from Old English drincan, to drink, from nasalized Germanic form *drenkan, to draw into the mouth, drink.
drench , from Old English drencan, to soak, from nasalized o-grade Germanic causative form *drankjan, "to cause to drink.".
drown , from a Scandinavian or late Old English source similar to Old Norse drukkna, to drown, from Germanic zero-grade suffixed form *drunk-nōn.

||[Pokorny dhreg̑‑ 273.]

r109_ ‌ ‌ dhreibh-
To drive, push; snow.

drive , drove ², from Old English drīfan, to drive, rush, from Germanic *drīban.
drift , from Middle English drift, drove, herd, akin to Old Norse drift, snowdrift, and Middle Dutch drift, herd, from Germanic zero-grade suffixed form *driftiz.

||[Pokorny dhreibh‑ 274.]

r110_ ‌ ‌ dhreu-
To fall, flow, drip, droop.
Derivatives include dreary , and drowse.

Extended form *dhreus‑. drizzle , from Old English -drysnian (in gedrysnian, to pass away, vanish), from zero-grade Germanic derived verb *drus-inōn.
Extended o-grade form *dhrous‑.
1. dreary , from Old English drēor, flowing blood, from Germanic *drauzaz;
2. drowse , from Old English drūsian, to be sluggish, from Germanic *drūsjan.
Extended zero-grade form *dhrub‑.
1. drop , from Old English dropa, drop, from Germanic *drupan;
2. droop , from Old Norse drūpa, to hang down, from Germanic *drūpōn, to let fall;
3. drip , from Middle English drippen, to drip, drop, from an unattested Old English *dryppan or another source akin to Old English droppa, drop, from Germanic geminated *drupp‑;
4. Germanic *drup‑, to drip, in compound *obisdrup‑ (see upo- ).
Suffixed zero-grade form *dhrubh-yo‑. lithotripter , lithotrity , from Greek thruptein, to crumble.

||[Pokorny dhreu‑ 274.]

r111_ ‌ ‌ dhugəter-
Daughter. Oldest form *dhugh₂ter‑.

: daughter , from Old English dohtor, daughter, from Germanic *dohtēr.

||[Pokorny dhug(h)əter 277.]

r112_ ‌ ‌ dhwer-
Door, doorway (usually in plural). Originally an ablauting noun *dhwor, *dhur‑, in the plural, designating the entrance to the enclosure (*dhwor-o‑) surrounding the house proper.
Derivatives include forest , and foreign.

Zero-grade form *dhur‑ in suffixed forms *dhur-n̥s (accusative plural) and *dhur-o‑ (neuter) door , from Old English duru, door (feminine, originally plural), and dor, door (neuter), respectively from Germanic *durunz and *duram.
Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-āns (accusative plural) farouche , foreign , vicar forane , from Latin forās, (toward) out of doors, outside.
Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-ois (locative plural) forest ; afforest , faubourg , foreclose , forfeit , from Latin forīs, (being) out of doors.
Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-o‑. forensic , forum , from Latin forum, marketplace (originally the enclosed space around a home).
Dari ; durbar , from Old Persian duvara‑, door, gate.
Zero-grade form *dhur‑. thyroid ; thyreophoran , from Greek thurā, door.

||[Pokorny dhu̯ē̆r‑ 278.]

r113_ ‌ ‌ dlegh-
To engage oneself. European root found in Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, and possibly Latin.

1. play , from Old English plegian, to exercise oneself, play;
2. pledge ; frankpledge , replevin , from Late Latin plevium (> Old French plevir, to pledge), pledge, guarantee;
3. plight ², from Old English pliht, danger, peril, from Germanic derivative noun *plehti‑. a-c from Germanic *plegan, probably altered (by dissimilation) from *tlegan.
Zero-grade form *dl̥gh‑. indulge , from Latin indulgēre, to indulge, explained by some as from prefixed and suffixed stative form *en-dl̥gh-ē‑ (*en‑, in; see en ).

||[Pokorny dhl̥gh‑ 271.]

r114_ ‌ ‌ dn̥ghū-
Tongue. Oldest form *dn̥g̑huh₂‑, becoming *dn̥g̑hū‑ in satem languages and *dn̥ghū‑ in centum languages.

1. tongue , from Old English tunge, tongue;
2. biltong , from Middle Dutch tonghe, tongue. Both a and b from Germanic *tungōn‑.
language , languet , ligula , ligule , lingo , lingua , linguine , linguist ; bilingual , from Latin lingua (< Archaic Latin dingua), tongue, language.

||[Pokorny dn̥g̑hū 223.]

r115_ ‌ ‌ dō-
To give. Oldest form *deh₃‑, colored to *doh₃‑, becoming *dō‑.
Derivatives include betray , surrender , vend , dose , and antidote.

1. Zero-grade form *də‑. dado , date ¹, dative , datum , die ²; add , betray , edition , perdition , render , rent ¹, surrender , tradition , traitor , treason , vend , from Latin dare, to give;
2. Greek dosis, something given (see 4 below).
Suffixed form *dō-no‑. donation , donative , donor ; condone , pardon , from Latin dōnum, gift.
Suffixed form *dō-t(i)‑.
1. dot ², dowager , dower , dowry ; endow , from Latin dōs (genitive dōtis), dowry;
2. dacha , from Russian dacha, gift, dacha, from Slavic *datja;
3. samizdat , from Russian samizdat, samizdat, from dat', to give.
Suffixed form *dō-ro‑. lobster thermidor , Pandora , from Greek dōron, gift.
Reduplicated form *di-dō‑. dose ; anecdote , antidote , apodosis , epidote , from Greek didonai, to give, with zero-grade noun dosis (< *də-ti‑), something given.

||[Pokorny dō‑ 223.]

r116_ ‌ ‌ dus-
Bad, evil; mis- (used as a prefix). Derivative of deu- ¹.

dys- , from Greek dus‑, bad.
Durga , from Sanskrit Durgā, Durga (short for durgā devī, goddess who is difficult to approach), from durgā, feminine of durga‑, difficult to approach, from dus‑ (becoming dur‑ before voiced consonants), bad, difficult (*-ga‑, going, coming; see g^wā- ).

||[Pokorny dus‑ 227.]

r117_ ‌ ‌ dwo-
Two.
Derivatives include twilight , biscuit , between , combine , diploma , and doubt.

Variant form *duwo.
1. 1. two , from Old English twā̆, two (nominative feminine and neuter);
  2. twain ; twayblade , from Old English twēgen, two (nominative and accusative masculine). Both a and b from Germanic *twa, two.
2. twelfth , twelve , from Old English twelf, twelve, and twelfta, twelfth, from Germanic compound *twa-lif‑, "two left (over from ten)," twelve (*-lif‑, left; see leik^w- ).
Adverbial form *dwis and combining form *dwi‑.
1. 1. twilight , from Old English twi‑, two;
  2. zwieback , zwitterion , from Old High German zwi‑, twice. Both a and b from Germanic *twi‑.
2. bi- ¹, bis , bis- ; balance , barouche , bezel , biscuit , bistort , from Latin bis (combining form bi‑), twice.
3. di- ¹, from Greek dis (combining form di‑), twice.
4. twist , from Old English -twist, divided object, fork, rope, from Germanic *twis.
5. twice , from Old English twige, twiga, twice, from Germanic *twiyes.
6. twenty , from Old English twēntig, twenty, from Germanic compound *twēgentig, "twice ten" (*-tig, ten; see dekm̥ ).
7. twine , from Old English twīn, double thread, from Germanic *twīhna, double thread, twisted thread.
8. between , betwixt , twixt , from Old English betwēonum and betweox, betwix, between, from Germanic compounds *bi-twīhna and *bi-twisk, "at the middle point of two" (bi, at, by; see ambhi ).
9. twill , from Old English twilic, woven of double thread, from Germanic compound *twilic‑, "two-threaded fabric.".
10. Suffixed form *dwis-no‑.
  1. twin , from Old English twinn, getwinn, two by two, twin, from Germanic *twisnaz, double;
  2. bi- ¹, binal , binary ; combine , pinochle , from Latin bīnī, two by two, two each.
11. Suffixed form *dwi-ko‑. twig ¹, from Old English twigge, a branch, from Germanic *twig(g)a, a fork.
12. Compound *dwi-plo‑, twofold (*-plo‑,-fold; see pel- ²). diplo- , diploe , diploid , diploma ; anadiplosis , diplodocus , from Greek diploos, diplous, twofold.
13. Suffixed reduplicated form *dwi-du-mo‑. didymium , didymous ; epididymis , from Greek didumos, double, the testicles.
14. Suffixed form *dwi-gha. dichasium , dicho- , from Greek dikha, in two.
15. Dhivehi , from Sanskrit dvīpaḥ, island, from earlier *dvi-əp-o‑ "having water on two sides" (*ap‑, əp‑, water).
Inflected form *duwō.
1. deuce ¹, dozen , dual , duet , duo , duo- ; duodecimal , duumvir , from Latin duo, two.
2. duad , dyad ; dodecagon , hendiadys , from Greek duo, duō, two.
Variant form *du‑.
1. Compound *du-plo‑, twofold (*-plo‑,-fold; see pel- ²). double , doublet , doubloon , duple , from Latin duplus, double.
2. Compound *du-plek‑, twofold (*-plek‑,-fold; see plek- ). duplex , duplicate , duplicity ; conduplicate , from Latin duplex, double.
3. Suffixed form *du-bhw-io‑. doubt , dubious ; redoubtable , from Latin dubius, doubtful (< "hesitating between two alternatives"), and dubitāre, to be in doubt.
Also ultimately from this root, although the exact preform is unclear, is the Middle Indic prefix *du‑, two. dupatta .

||[Pokorny du̯ō(u) 228.]

r118_ ‌ ‌ dyeu-
To shine (and in many derivatives, "sky, heaven, god"). Zero-grades *dyu‑ and *diw‑.
Derivatives include Tuesday , divine , jovial , Jupiter , diary , dismal , journey , and psychedelic.

Basic form *dyeu‑, Jove, the name of the god of the bright sky, head of the Indo-European pantheon.
1. Jove , jovial ; apojove , perijove , Sangiovese , from Latin Iovis, Jupiter, or Iov‑, stem of Iuppiter, Jupiter.
2. July , from Latin Iūlius, "descended from Jupiter" (name of a Roman gens), from derivative *iou-il‑.
3. Vocative compound *dyeu-pəter, "O father Jove" (*pəter‑, father; see pəter- ). Jupiter , from Latin Iuppiter, Iūpiter, head of the Roman pantheon.
4. Dione , Zeus ; dianthus , Dioscuri , from Greek Zeus (genitive Dios), Zeus.
Noun *deiwos, god, formed by e-insertion to the zero-grade *diw‑ and suffixation of (accented) -o‑.
1. 1. Tiu , Tuesday , from Old English Tīw (genitive Tīwes), god of war and sky;
  2. Tyr , from Old Norse Tȳr, sky god. Both a and b from Germanic *Tīwaz.
2. deism , deity , joss ; adieu , adios , deific , deus ex machina , from Latin deus, god.
3. diva , divine , from Latin dīvus, divine, god.
4. Dis , Dives , from Latin dīves, rich (< "fortunate, blessed, divine").
5. Suffixed zero-grade form *diw-yo‑, heavenly. Diana , from Latin Diāna, moon goddess.
6. deva , Devi ; deodar , Devanagari , from Sanskrit devaḥ, god, and deva‑, divine.
7. Asmodeus , from Avestan daēuua‑, spirit, demon.
Variant *dyē‑ (< *dyeə‑) dial , diary , diet ², dismal , diurnal , journal , journey ; adjourn , ajouré , circadian , meridian , postmeridian , quotidian , sojourn , from Latin diēs, day.
Variant *deiə‑. psychedelic , adelgid , from Greek dēlos (< *deyalos), clear.

||[Pokorny 1. dei‑ 183.]

r119_ ‌ ‌ ed-
To eat; original meaning "to bite." Oldest form *h₁ed‑.

1. eat , from Old English etan, to eat;
2. etch , from Old High German ezzen, to feed on, eat;
3. ort , from Middle Dutch eten, to eat;
4. 1. fret ¹, from Old English fretan, to devour;
  2. frass , from Old High German frezzan, to devour. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *fra-etan, to eat up (*fra‑, completely; see per ¹). a-d all from Germanic *etan.
edacious , edible , escarole , esculent , esurient ; comedo , comestible , obese , from Latin edere, to eat.
prandial , from Latin compound prandium, lunch, probably from *prām-(e)d-yo‑, "first meal," *prām‑, first; see per ¹.
Suffixed form *ed-un-o‑. jotun , from Old Norse jötunn, giant, jotun, from Germanic idunaz (perhaps < "immense eater" or "man-eating giant").
Suffixed form *ed-un-ā‑. anodyne , pleurodynia , from Greek odunē, pain (< "gnawing care").
Suffixed zero-grade form *əd-ti‑. alfalfa , from Old Iranian *-sti‑, food, in compound.*aspa-sti‑clover, alfalfa ("horse food") (*aspa‑, horse; see ekwo- ).
Samoyed , from Russian -ed, eater.

||[Pokorny ed‑ 287.]
See also derivative dent- .

r120_ ‌ ‌ eg
I. Nominative form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. Oldest form *eg̑, becoming *eg in centum languages. (For oblique forms see me- ¹).

I ¹, from Old English ic, I, from Germanic *ek.
Extended form *egō. ego , egoist , egotism , from Latin ego, I.

||[Pokorny eg̑‑ 291.]

r121_ ‌ ‌ eghs
Out. Oldest form *eg̑hs, becoming *eghs in centum languages.
Derivatives include strange , and extreme.

Variant *eks.
1. ex ¹, ex- ; deus ex machina , from Latin ex, ex‑, out of, away from;
2. ecto- , ex- , exo- , exoteric , exotic ; ekpyrotic , electuary , lekvar , synecdoche , from Greek ex, ek, out of, from.
Suffixed (comparative) variant form *eks-tero‑.
1. estrange , exterior , external , extra- , strange , from Latin exter, outward (feminine ablative exterā, extrā, on the outside);
2. further suffixed (superlative) form *eks-t(e)r-ēmo‑. extreme , extremum , from Latin extrēmus, outermost (*-mo‑, superlative suffix).
Suffixed form *eghs-ko‑. eschatology , from Greek eskhatos, outermost, last.
Celtic *eks‑, out (of), in compound *eks-dī-sedo‑ (see sed- ).
samizdat , from Russian iz, from, out of, from Balto-Slavic *iz.

||[Pokorny eg̑hs 292.]

r122_ ‌ ‌ eg^wh-
To drink. Oldest form *h₁eg^wh‑.Suffixed lengthened-grade form *ēg^wh-r-yo‑.

inebriate , ryegrass , from Latin ēbrius, drunk;
Latin compound sōbrius (see s(w)e- ).

||[Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite ekuzi, he drinks, and Greek nēphein, to be sober (< "not drink," *ne-ēg^wh‑).]

r123_ ‌ ‌ ei-
To go. Oldest form *h₁ei‑, zero-grade *h₁i‑.
Derivatives include ambition , perish , sudden , transit , ion , initial , janitor , and January.

Full-grade form *ei‑.
1. adit , ambient , ambition , circuit , coitus , comitia , exit , introit , issue , obituary , perish , praetor , preterite , sedition , subito , sudden , trance , transient , transit , transitive , from Latin īre, to go;
2. ion ; anion , cation , dysprosium , from Greek ienai, to go;
3. Ramayana , from Sanskrit eti, he goes (< Indo-Iranian *ai-ti), and abstract noun ayanam, a going, way.
Suffixed zero-grade form *i-t‑.
1. Further suffixed form *i-t-yo‑. commence , initial , initiate , from Latin initium, entrance, beginning (in‑, in; see en ).
1. count ², county ; concomitant , constable , viscount , from Latin comes (stem comit‑), companion (< "one who goes with another"; com‑, with; see kom ).
Suffixed form *i-ter. errant , eyre , itinerant , itinerary , from Latin iter, journey.
Perhaps suffixed form *i-ti‑. Gastarbeiter , from Old High German arabeiti, labor, from Germanic *arbaithi‑ (see orbh- ).
Extended form *yā‑ (< *h₁yah₂‑, colored from earlier *h₁yeh₂‑) in suffixed forms *yā-no‑, *yā-nu‑.
1. janitor , January , Janus , from Latin iānus, archway, and Iānus, god of doors and of the beginning of a year;
2. Hinayana , Mahayana , from Sanskrit yānam, way (in Buddhism, "mode of knowledge," "vehicle").

||[Pokorny 1. ei‑ 293.]

r124_ ‌ ‌ eis-
In words denoting passion. Oldest form *h₁eis‑ or possibly *h₁eish₂‑.

Suffixed form *eis-ā‑. irascible , irate , ire , from Latin īra, anger.
Suffixed zero-grade form *is-(ə)ro‑, powerful, holy. hieratic , hiero- ; hierarch , hierarchy , hierodule , hieroglyphic , hierophant , from Greek hieros, "filled with the divine," holy.
1. iron , from Old English īse(r)n, īren, iron;
2. gisarme , spiegeleisen , from Old High German īsarn, īsan, iron. Both a and b from Germanic *īsarno‑, "holy metal" (possibly from Celtic).
Suffixed o-grade form *ois-tro‑, madness. estrus ; estrogen , estrone , from Greek oistros, gadfly, goad, anything causing madness.
Suffixed form *eis-mo. Asmodeus , from Avestan aēšma‑, anger.

||[Pokorny 1. eis‑ 299.]

r125_ ‌ ‌ ekwo-
Horse. Probably to be segmented *ekw-o‑, a suffixed form akin to the lengthened o-grade adjective ōku- , swift. Oldest form h₁ek̑wo‑, becoming ekwo‑ in centum languages.

equestrian , equid , equine , equitant , equitation , Equuleus ; equisetum , from Latin equus, horse.
eohippus , hippocampus , Hippocrene , hippodrome , hippogriff , hippopotamus , from Greek hippos, horse.
alfalfa , from Old Iranian *aspa‑, horse.

||[Pokorny ek̑u̯o-s 301.]

r126_ ‌ ‌ el-
Elbow, forearm.

Extended form *el-inā‑, elbow.
1. ell ², from Old English eln, forearm, cubit, from Germanic *elinō;
2. elbow , from Old English elnboga, elbow, from Germanic compound *elino-bugōn‑, "bend of the forearm," elbow (*bugōn‑, bend, bow; see bheug- );
3. ulna , from Latin ulna, forearm.
Extended o-grade form *ol-enā‑. uilleann pipe , from Old Irish uilenn, elbow.
Extended lengthened o-grade form *ōl-enā‑. olecranon , from Greek ōlenē, elbow.
Extended basic form *el-in‑. arshin , from Old Persian arašn‑, ell, from Indo-Iranian *aratn(i)‑, probably from a variant *el-etn‑ of *el-in‑.

||[Pokorny 8. el‑ 307.]

r127_ ‌ ‌ em-
To take, distribute.

ademption , example , exemplary , exemplify , exemplum , exempt , impromptu , peremptory , preemption , premium , prompt , pronto , ransom , redeem , redemption , sample , vintage , from Latin emere, to obtain, buy.
sumptuary , sumptuous ; assume , consume , presume , resume , subsume , from Latin sūmere (< *sus(e)m‑), to take, obtain, buy (sus‑, variant of sub‑, up from under; see upo ).

||[Pokorny em‑ 310.]

r128_ ‌ ‌ en
In.
Derivatives include inner , entrails , industry , and dysentery.

1. in ¹, (preposition), from Old English in, in;
2. in ¹, (adverb), from Old English inn, into, inne, inside;
3. inn , from Old English inn, habitation, inn;
4. tsimmes , from Old High German in, in;
5. inner , from Old English innera, farther in, inner, from Germanic (comparative) *inn(e)ra;
6. 1. ben , from Old English binnan, within;
  2. bilander , from Middle Dutch binnen, within (be, by; see ambhi + innan, in, within). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *innan. a-f all from Germanic *in.
en- ¹, in- ², from Latin in, in‑, in, into.
en- ²; enkephalin , parenchyma , parenthesis , from Greek en, en‑.
Suffixed form *en-t(e)ro‑.
1. intro- ; introduce , introit , intromit , introrse , introspect , from Latin intrō, inward, within;
2. enter , intra- ; intrados , from Latin intrā, inside, within;
3. interim , intrinsic , from Latin interim, meanwhile, with ablative suffix -im, and intrīnsecus, on the inside, from int(e)rim + secus, alongside (see sek^w- ¹).
Suffixed form *en-ter. entrails , inter- , interior , intern , internal , from Latin inter, inter‑, between, among.
intima , intimate ², from Latin (superlative) intimus, innermost (*-mo‑, superlative suffix).
Extended form *en-do.
1. industry , from Latin industrius, diligent (Archaic Latin indostruus; *stru‑, to construct; see ster- ²);
2. indigent , from Latin indigēre, to be in need (egēre, to be in need). Both a and b from indu‑, within, from Archaic Latin endo;
3. endo- , from Greek endon, endo‑, within.
Suffixed form *en-tos.
1. dedans , intestine , intine , intussusception , from Latin intus, within, inside;
2. ento- , from Greek entos, within.
Suffixed form *en-tero‑.
1. enteric , entero- , enteron ; dysentery , exenterate , mesentery , from Greek enteron, intestine;
2. atoll , perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit antara‑, interior.
Extended form *ens.
1. episode , from Greek eis, into;
2. suffixed form *ens-ō. esoteric , esotropia , from Greek esō, within.
Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *n̥-dha. and , from Old English and, and, from Germanic *anda, *unda.

||[Pokorny 1. en 311.]

r129_ ‌ ‌ epi
Also opi.
Near, at, against.

ob- , from Latin ob, ob‑, before, to, against.
epi- , from Greek epi, on, over, at.
opisthobranch , opisthognathous , from Greek opisthen, behind, at the back.
Zero-grade form *pi, on, in Greek piezein (see sed- ).
oblast , from Russian oblast', oblast, from Old Church Slavonic ob, on.
Reduced prefixal form *op‑ in *op-wer-yo‑ (see wer- ⁴).
duopsony , opsonin , from Greek *ops, extra on the side, with, in noun opson, condiment, cooked food.

||[Pokorny epi 323.]

r130_ ‌ ‌ er-¹
To move, set in motion. Oldest form *h₁er‑.

Basic form *er‑.
1. Probably Germanic *ar‑, *or‑, *art(a), to be, exist. are ¹, art ², from Old English eart and aron, second person singular and plural present of bēon, to be.
2. Perhaps Germanic suffixed form *er-n-os-ti‑. earnest ¹, from Old English eornoste, zealous, serious.
3. Uncertain o-grade suffixed form *ori-yo‑. orient , origin , original ; abort , from Latin orīrī, to arise, appear, be born.
4. Suffixed o-grade form *or-smā‑. hormesis , hormone , from Greek hormē, impulse, onrush.
Enlarged extended form *rei-s‑.
1. rise ; arise , from Old English rīsan, from Germanic *rīsan;
2. Suffixed o-grade (causative) form *rois-ye‑.
  1. rear ², from Old English rǣran, to rear, raise, lift up;
  2. raise , from Old Norse reisa, to raise. Both a and b from Germanic *raizjan.

||[Pokorny 3. er‑ 326; ergh‑ 339.]

r131_ ‌ ‌ er-²
Earth, ground. Extended form *ert‑.

earth , from Old English eorthe, earth;
aardvark , aardwolf , from Middle Dutch aerde, eerde, earth. Both a and b from Germanic *erthō.

||[Pokorny 4. er‑ 332.]

r132_ ‌ ‌ erə-
To row. Oldest form *h₁erh₁‑.

Variant form *rē‑ (contracted from *reh₁‑, from earlier *h₁reh₁‑).
1. row ², from Old English rōwan, to row, from Germanic *rō‑;
2. suffixed form *rō-tro‑. rudder , Rus , Russian , Russky , from Old English rōther and Old Norse rōdhr, steering oar, both from Germanic *rōthra, rudder;
3. suffixed form *rē-smo‑. bireme , remex , trireme , from Latin rēmus, oar.
Oldest variant form *h₁reh₁‑ becoming *erē‑ in Greek. trierarch , from Greek triērēs, trireme.

||[Pokorny 1. erə‑ 338.]

r133_ ‌ ‌ ers-
To be in motion.

Variant form *rēs‑. race ², from Old Norse rās, rushing, from Germanic *rēs‑.
Suffixed form *ers-ā‑. err , erratic , erratum , erroneous , error ; aberration , from Latin errāre, to wander.
Possible zero-grade form *r̥s-i‑. rishi , from Sanskrit ṛṣiḥ, poet, seer.

||[Pokorny 2. ere-s‑ 336.]

r134_ ‌ ‌ es-
To be. Oldest form *h₁es‑, zero-grade *h₁s‑.
Derivatives include yes , soothe , sin ¹, essence , absent , and proud.

Athematic first person singular form *es-mi. am , from Old English eam, eom, am, from Germanic *izm(i).
Athematic third person singular form *es-ti. is , from Old English is, is, from Germanic *ist(i).
Optative stem *sī‑. yes , from Old English gēse, yes, from sīe, may it be (so) (gēa, yea; see i- ), from Germanic *sijai‑.
Suffixed zero-grade (participial) form *h₁s-ont‑, becoming *sont‑, being, existing, hence real, true.
1. sooth , soothe , from Old English sōth, true, from Germanic *santhaz;
2. suffixed (collective) zero-grade form *sn̥t-yā‑, "that which is." sin ¹, from Old English synn, sin, from Germanic *sun(d)jō, sin (< "it is true," "the sin is real");
3. suttee ; bodhisattva , Satyagraha , from Sanskrit sat‑, sant‑, existing, true, virtuous.
Basic form *es‑. entity , essence ; abessive , absent , adessive , essive , improve , inessive , interest , ossia , present ¹, present ², proud , quintessence , represent , stover , from Latin esse, to be.
Basic form *es‑. -ont , onto- ; -biont , Homoiousian , Parousia , schizont , from Greek einai (present participle ont‑, being), to be (in pareinai, to be present).
Suffixed form *es-ti‑. swastika , from Sanskrit svasti, well-being (su‑, good; see (e)su- ).

||[Pokorny es‑ 340.]
See also extension (e)su- .

r135_ ‌ ‌ (e)su-
Good. Oldest form *h₁(e)su‑. Originally suffixed form of es- .

eu- , from Greek eu‑, well, combining form of eus, good.
1. swastika , from Sanskrit svasti, well-being, good luck (-asti, being; see es- );
2. nainsook , from Sanskrit sukha‑, running easily (said of a chariot), pleasant ("having good axle-holes"; kham, axle-hole). Both a and b from Sanskrit su‑, good.
cushy , perhaps from Urdu khūš, good, from Persian khvaš, perhaps from Old Iranian *khvaxša‑, having a good appearance, from hu‑ ( becoming khv‑ before vowels), good (-axša‑, eye; see ok^w- ).

||[Pokorny esu-s 342.]

r136_ ‌ ‌ eu-
To dress.

endue , indumentum , from Latin induere, to don (ind‑, variant of in‑, in, on; see en ).
exuviae , from Latin exuere, to doff (ex‑, off; see eghs ).
reduviid , from Latin reduvia, fragment (red‑, back, in reverse; see re- ).

||[Pokorny 2. eu‑ 346.]
See also extension wes- ².

r137_ ‌ ‌ euə-
To leave, abandon, give out, whence nominal derivatives meaning abandoned, lacking, empty. Oldest form *h₁euh₂‑, zero-grade *h₁uh₂‑, with variant form *h₁weh₂‑, colored to *h₁wah₂‑, becoming *wā‑.

Suffixed form *wə-no‑.
1. wane ; wanton , from Old English wanian, to lessen (from Germanic *wanēn), and wan‑, without;
2. want , from Old Norse vanta, to lack, from North Germanic *wanatōn.
Suffixed form *wā-no‑. vain , vanity , vaunt ; evanesce , vanish , from Latin vānus, empty.
Extended form *wak‑. vacant , vacate , vacation , vacuity , vacuum , void ; avoid , devoid , evacuate , from Latin vacāre (variant vocāre), to be empty.
Extended and suffixed form *wās-to‑. waste ; devastate , from Latin vāstus, empty, waste.

||[Pokorny 1. eu‑ 345.]

r138_ ‌ ‌ euə-dh-r̥
Udder. Related to wē-r- .

Suffixed zero-grade form *ūdh-r̥. udder , from Old English ūder, udder, from Germanic *ūdr‑.
Suffixed o-grade form *oudh-r̥. exuberant , exuberate , from Latin adjective ūber, fertile, derived from ūber, "breast.".

||[Pokorny ēudh‑ 347.]

r139_ ‌ ‌ gal-
To call, shout.

call , from Old Norse kalla, to call, from Germanic expressive form *kall‑.
clatter , from Old English *clatrian, to clatter, from Germanic *klat‑.
Expressive form *gall‑. gallinaceous , gallinule ; pico de gallo , from Latin gallus, cock (< "the calling bird"; but probably also associated with Gallus, Gallic, as if to mean "the bird of Gaul," the cock being archaeologically attested as an important symbol in the iconography of Roman and pre-Roman Gaul).
Suffixed form *gal-so‑. glasnost , from Old Church Slavonic glasŭ, voice.
Reduplicated form *gal-gal‑. Glagolitic , from Old Church Slavonic glagolŭ, word.

||[Pokorny 2. gal‑ 350.]

r140_ ‌ ‌ gāu-
To rejoice; also to have religious fear or awe. Oldest form *geh₂u‑, colored to *gah₂u‑, becoming *gau‑ (before consonants) and *gāw‑ (before vowels).

Suffixed extended form *gāw-idh-ē‑. gaud , gaudy ¹, gaudy ², joy ; enjoy , rejoice , from Latin gaudēre, to rejoice.
Form (with nasal infix) *gə-n-u‑. ganoid , from Greek ganusthai, to rejoice.

||[Pokorny gāu‑ 353.]

r141_ ‌ ‌ gel-
Cold; to freeze.
Derivatives include chill , jelly , and glacier.

chill , from Old English c(i)ele, chill, from Germanic *kaliz, coldness.
cold , from Old English ceald, cold, from Germanic *kaldaz, cold.
1. cool , from Old English cōl, cold, cool;
2. keel ³, from Old English cēlan, to cool, from Germanic *kōljan, to cool. Both a and b from Germanic *kōl‑, cool.
Suffixed form *gel-ā‑. gelatin , gelation , jelly ; congeal , from Latin gelāre, to freeze.
Suffixed form *gel-u‑. gelid , from Latin gelū, frost, cold.
Probably suffixed zero-grade form *gl̥-k‑. glacé , glacial , glaciate , glacier , glacis ; demi-glace , verglas , from Latin glaciēs, ice.

||[Pokorny 3. gel(ə)‑ 365.]

r142_ ‌ ‌ gembh-
Tooth, nail. Oldest form *g̑embh‑, becoming *gembh‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include comb , unkempt , and gem.

Suffixed o-grade form *gombh-o‑.
1. 1. comb , kame , from Old English comb, camb, comb;
  2. cam , from Dutch kam, cog, comb;
  3. unkempt , from Old English cemban, to comb, from Germanic denominative *kambjan, to comb. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *kambaz, comb.
2. gomphosis , from Greek gomphos, tooth, peg, bolt.
Suffixed zero-grade form *gm̥bh-ōn‑. oakum , from Old English ā-cumba, part of flax separated in hackling, oakum ("stuff combed off"; ā‑, away, off).
Perhaps Germanic *kimb‑. chime ², from Old English cim‑, cimb‑, rim (only in compounds),.
Possibly suffixed form *gembh-mā‑. gem , gemma , gemmation , gemmule , from Latin gemma, bud, hence gem.

||[Pokorny g̑embh‑ 369.]

r143_ ‌ ‌ gemə-
To marry. Oldest form *g̑emh₁‑, becoming *gemh₁‑ in centum languages.

: Suffixed zero-grade form *gm̥ə-o‑. gamete , gamo- , -gamous , -gamy , from Greek gamos, marriage.

||[Pokorny g̑em(e)‑ 369.]

r144_ ‌ ‌ genə-
Also gen-.
To give birth, beget; with derivatives referring to aspects and results of procreation and to familial and tribal groups. Oldest form *g̑enh₁‑, becoming *genh₁‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include kin , king , jaunty , genius , pregnant ¹, gingerly , and nature.

Basic form *genə‑.
1. Suffixed form *genə-es‑.
  1. gender , general , generate , generation , generic , generous , genre , genus ; congener , degenerate , engender , miscegenation , from Latin genus, race, kind;
  2. gene ; allogeneic , genealogy , genocide , genotype , heterogeneous , syngeneic , from Greek genos and geneā, race, family;
  3. -gen , -geny ; epigene , from Greek suffix -genēs, "-born.".
2. Suffixed form *gen(ə)-yo‑.
  1. genial ¹, genius ; congenial , from Latin genius, procreative divinity, inborn tutelary spirit, innate quality;
  2. engine , ingenious , from Latin ingenium, inborn character (in‑, in; see en ).
3. Suffixed form *genə-ā‑. indigen , indigenous , from Latin indigena, born in (a place), indigenous (indu‑, within; see en ).
4. Suffixed form *genə-wo‑. genuine , ingenuous , from Latin ingenuus, born in (a place), native, natural, freeborn (in‑, in; see en ).
5. Suffixed form *gen(ə)-men‑. germ , german ², germane , germinal , germinate , from dissimilated Latin germen, shoot, bud, embryo, germ.
O-grade form *gonə‑, reduced to *gon‑ in suffixed form *gon-o‑.
1. gonad , gono- , -gony ; archegonium , carpogonium , epigone , from Greek gonos, child, procreation, seed.
2. Harijan , from Sanskrit janaḥ, offspring, child, person.
Zero-grade form *gn̥ə‑.
1. Suffixed form *gn̥ə-yo‑.
  1. kin ; kindred , from Old English cyn(n), race, family, kin;
  2. king , from Old English cyning, king, from Germanic *kuningaz, king. Both a and b from Germanic *kunjam, family.
2. Suffixed form *gn̥ə-t‑.
  1. kind ², from Old English cynd, gecynd(e), origin, birth, race, family, kind, from Germanic *kundjaz, family, race;
  2. kind ¹, from Old English gecynde, natural, native, fitting (ge‑, collective prefix; see kom ), from Germanic *kundiz, natural, native;
  3. suffixed form *gn̥ə-ti‑.
    1. gens , genteel , gentile , gentle , gentry , jaunty ; gendarme , from Latin gēns (stem genti‑), race, clan;
    2. genesis , -genesis , from Greek genesis, birth, beginning.
  4. kindergarten , Kriss Kringle , wunderkind , from Old High German kind, child, from Germanic secondary full-grade variant *kentham;
  5. suffixed form *gn̥ə-to‑. Jataka , from Sanskrit jāta‑, born (verbal adjective of janate, he is born).
3. Reduplicated form *gi-gn(ə)‑. genital , genitive , genitor , geniture , gent ¹, gingerly ; congenital , primogenitor , primogeniture , progenitor , progeny , from Latin gignere (past participle genitus), to beget.
4. Reduced form *gn‑ in suffixed form *-gn-o‑. benign , malign , from Latin benignus, good-natured, kindly (bene, well; see deu- ²) and malignus, evil-natured, malevolent (male, ill; see mel- ³).
5. Zero-grade form *gn̥ə‑ becoming *gnā‑. pregnant ¹; impregnate , from Latin praegnās, pregnant (prae‑, before; see per ¹).
6. Suffixed form *gn̥ə-sko‑ becoming *gnā-sko‑. nada , naive , nascent , natal , nation , native , nature , née , Noël ; adnate , agnate , cognate , connate , enate , innate , neonate , puisne , puny , renaissance , from Latin gnāscī, nāscī (past participle gnātus, nātus), to be born.
7. Reduced form *gn̥‑ in Sanskrit compound kṛmi-ja‑ (see k^wr̥mi- ).

||[Pokorny 1. g̑en‑ 373.]

r145_ ‌ ‌ genu-¹
Knee; also angle. Oldest form *g̑enu‑, becoming *genu‑ in centum languages.

Variant form *gneu‑.
1. knee , from Old English cnēo, knee, from Germanic *knewam;
2. kneel , from Old English cnēowlian, to kneel, from Germanic *knewljan.
Basic form *genu‑. geniculate , genuflect , from Latin genū, knee.
O-grade form *gonu. polygonum , pycnogonid , from Greek gonu, knee.
Suffixed variant form *gōnw-yə‑. -gon ; amblygonite , diagonal , goniometer , orthogonal , from Greek gōniā, angle, corner.

||[Pokorny 1. g̑enu‑ 380.]

r146_ ‌ ‌ genu-²
Jawbone, chin. Oldest form *g̑enu‑, becoming *genu‑ in centum languages.

Form *genw‑. chin , from Old English cin(n), chin, from Germanic *kinnuz.
Basic form *genu‑. genial ², from Greek genus, jaw.
Suffixed variant form *gnə-dho‑. ganache , gnathal , gnathic , -gnathous ; agnathan , chaetognath , compsognathus , gnathostome , from Greek gnathos, jaw.
Variant form *g(h)enu‑. hanuman , from Sanskrit hanu, jaw.

||[Pokorny 2. g̑enu‑ 381.]

r147_ ‌ ‌ ger-
To gather. Oldest form *h₂ger‑.

Extended form *grem‑. cram , from Old English crammian, to stuff, cram, from Germanic *kramm‑.
Reduplicated form *gre-g‑. gregarious , greige ; aggregate , congregate , egregious , segregate , from Latin grex (stem greg‑), herd, flock.
Basic form *əger‑, with suffixed o-grade form *əgor-ā‑. agora ¹, agoraphobia , allegory , category , panegyric , from Greek ageirein, to assemble, and aguris, agorā, marketplace.

||[Pokorny 1. ger‑ 382.]

r148_ ‌ ‌ gerbh-
To scratch.
Derivatives include carve , crawl ¹, and program.

carve , from Old English ceorfan, to cut, from Germanic *kerban.
kerf , from Old English cyrf, a cutting (off), from zero-grade Germanic form *kurbiz.
Variant form *grebh‑.
1. crab ¹, from Old English crabba, a crab, from Germanic *krab(b)‑;
2. crayfish , from Old High German kerbiz, edible crustacean, from Germanic *krabiz‑;
3. perhaps Germanic *krab‑. crawl ¹, from Old Norse krafla, to crawl.
Zero-grade form *gr̥bh‑.
1. glamour , graffito , graft ¹, gram ¹, -gram , grammar , -graph , -grapher , graphic , -graphy ; agrapha , agraphia , anagram , diagram , epigram , epigraph , graphite , iconography , paragraph , parallelogram , program , pseudepigrapha , Tetragrammaton , topography , from Greek graphein, to scratch, draw, write, gramma (< *gr̥bh-mn̥), a picture, written letter, piece of writing, and grammē, a line;
2. landgrave , margrave , palsgrave , from Middle Dutch grāve and Middle Low German grave, count, from West Germanic *grafa, a designation of rank, possibly borrowed from Greek grapheus, scribe.

||[Pokorny gerebh‑ 392.]

r149_ ‌ ‌ gerə-¹
To grow old. Oldest form *g̑erh₂‑, becoming *gerh₂‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed lengthened-grade form *gērə-s‑. ageratum , geriatrics , from Greek gēras, old age.
Suffixed form *gerə-ont‑. geronto- , from Greek gerōn (stem geront‑), old man.

||[Pokorny g̑er‑ 390.]

r150_ ‌ ‌ gerə-²
To cry hoarsely; also the name of the crane. Oldest form *gerh₂‑.
Derivatives include crack , cranberry , and pedigree.

Words meaning "to cry hoarsely"; also words denoting the crow.
1. 1. crow ¹, from Old English crāwe, a crow;
  2. crow ², from Old English crāwan, to crow;
  3. crack , from Old English cracian, to resound;
  4. cracknel , from Middle Dutch krāken, to crack;
  5. crake , from Old Norse krāka, a crow;
  6. croon , from Middle Dutch krōnen, to groan, lament. a-f all from Germanic *krē‑.
2. Possibly from this root (but more likely imitative) is Germanic *kur(r)‑. cur , from Middle English curre, cur, akin to Old Norse kurra, to growl.
Words denoting a crane.
1. 1. crane , from Old English cran, crane;
  2. cranberry , from Middle Low German kran, crane. Both a and b from Germanic *kran‑, crane.
2. Extended form *grū‑. Grus ; pedigree , from Latin grūs, crane.
3. Suffixed variant form *grā-k‑. grackle , from Latin grāculus, jackdaw.
4. Suffixed extended form *gerə-no‑. geranium , from Greek geranos, crane.

||[Pokorny 2. ger‑ 383.]

r151_ ‌ ‌ geus-
To taste, choose. Oldest form *g̑eus‑, becoming *geus‑ in centum languages.

1. choose , from Old English cēosan, ceōsan, to choose, from Germanic *keusan;
2. choice , from a Germanic source akin to Gothic kausjan, to test, taste, from Germanic causative *kausjan.
ageusia , from Greek geuesthai, to taste.
Zero-grade form *gus‑. Valkyrie , from Old Norse Valkyrja, "chooser of the slain," Valkyrie (valr, the slain; see welə- ), from Germanic *kuz‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *gus-tu‑. gust ², gusto ; ragout , from Latin gustus, taste.
Suffixed zero-grade form *gus-to‑, whence further suffixed (frequentative) form *gus-t-ā‑. gustation ; degust , disgust , from Latin gustāre, to taste.

||[Pokorny g̑eus‑ 399.]

r152_ ‌ ‌ ghabh-
Also ghebh-.
To give or receive.
Derivatives include give , able , malady , prohibit , duty , and endeavor.

Form *ghebh‑.
1. give , from Old English giefan, to give, and Old Norse gefa, to give;
2. zeitgeber , from Old High German geban, to give;
3. forgive , from Old English forgi(e)fan, to give, give up, leave off (anger), remit, forgive, from Germanic compound *far-geban, to give away (*far‑, away; see per ¹). a-c all from Germanic *geban.
Suffixed form *ghebh-ti‑, something given (or received) gift , from Old Norse gipt, gift, a gift, from Germanic *giftiz.
O-grade form *ghobh‑. gavel ², from Old English gafol, tribute, tax, debt, from Germanic *gab-ulam, something paid (or received).
Form *ghabh-ē‑.
1. able , binnacle , habile , habit , habitable , habitant , habitat ; avoirdupois , cohabit , exhibit , inhabit , inhibit , malady , prebend , prohibit , provender , from Latin habēre, to hold, possess, have, handle (> habitāre, to dwell);
2. debenture , debit , debt , devoir , due , duty ; endeavor , from Latin dēbēre, to owe (dē‑, away from; see de- ).

||[Pokorny ghabh‑ 407. ]
Compare kap- .

r153_ ‌ ‌ ghans-
Goose. Oldest form *g̑hans‑, becoming *ghans‑ in centum languages.

1. goose ; goshawk , from Old English gōs (nominative plural gēs), goose;
2. gosling , from Old Norse gās, goose;
3. gunsel , from Old High German gans, goose;
4. gonzo , from Spanish ganso, goose, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German gans, goose. a-d all from Germanic *gans‑ (nominative plural *gansiz).
gander , from Old English ganra, gandra, gander, from Germanic *gan(d)rōn‑.
gannet , from Old English ganot, gannet, from Germanic *ganōtōn‑.
Suffixed form *ghans-er‑. anserine ; merganser , from Latin ānser (< *hanser), goose.
Basic form *ghans‑. chenopod , from Greek khēn, goose.

||[Pokorny g̑han-s‑ 412.]

r154_ ‌ ‌ ghē-
To release, let go; (in the middle voice) to be released, go. Oldest form *g̑heh₁‑, becoming *g̑hē‑ in satem languages and *ghē‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include heir , and gait.

go ¹; ago , forego ¹, forgo , from Old English gān, to go, from Germanic variant form *gaian.
Suffixed form *ghē-ro‑. heir , hereditament , heredity , heritage ; inherit , from Latin hērēs, heir (? < "orphan" < "bereft").
Possibly suffixed o-grade form *ghō-ro‑, "empty space."
1. -chore , horiatiki ; anchorite , chorography , from Greek khōros, place, country, particular spot;
2. choripetalous , from Greek khōris, khōri, apart, separate.
Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghə-t(w)ā‑.
1. gait , gate ², from Old Norse gata, path, street;
2. gantlet ¹, gauntlet ², from Old Swedish gata, lane. Both a and b from Germanic *gatwōn‑, a going.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ghə-no‑. Hinayana , from Sanskrit hīna‑, inferior, verbal adjective of jahāti, he leaves, lets go (< reduplicated *ghe-ghē-ti, *ghe-gheə-ti).

||[Pokorny 1. g̑hē‑ 418.]

r155_ ‌ ‌ ghebh-el-
Head.

gable , from Old Norse gafl, gable, from Germanic *gablaz, top of a pitched roof.
Form *kephal‑, dissimilated from *khephal‑. cephalic , cephalo- , -cephalous ; autocephalous , encephalo- , enkephalin , hydrocephalus , pachycephalosaur , from Greek kephalē, head.

||[Pokorny ghebh-el‑ 423.]

r156_ ‌ ‌ ghei-
Theoretical base of *ghyem‑, *ghiem‑, winter. Oldest forms *g̑hei‑, *g̑hyem‑, *g̑hiem‑, becoming *ghei‑, *ghyem‑, *ghiem‑ in centum languages.

Form *ghiem‑. hiemal , from Latin hiems, winter.
Suffixed variant form *gheim-ri-no‑. hibernaculum , hibernate , from Latin hībernus, pertaining to winter.
O-grade form *ghiom-. chionodoxa , from Greek khiōn (stem khion‑), snow, from earlier *khiōn,, *khiom‑, with *-n‑ (< final *-m) generalized in oblique stem from nominative singular khiōn (< *ghiōm with lengthened o-grade).
Suffixed zero-grade form *ghim-r̥-yə, "female animal one year (winter) old." chimera , from Greek khimaira, she-goat.

||[Pokorny 2. g̑hei‑ 425.]

r157_ ‌ ‌ ghel-¹
To call.

1. yell , from Old English gellan, giellan, to sound, shout;
2. yelp , from Old English gielpan, to boast, exult;
3. nightingale , from Old English galan, to sing. a-c all from Germanic *gel‑, *gal‑.
Reduplicated form *ghi-ghl‑. cichlid , from Greek kikhlē, thrush, later also the name for a kind of wrasse (a sea fish that has bright colors and jagged waving fins, reminiscent of the plumage of a bird).
celandine , from Greek khelidwōn, khelidōn, the swallow.

||[Pokorny ghel‑ 428.]

r158_ ‌ ‌ ghel-²
To shine; with derivatives referring to colors, bright materials, gold (probably "yellow metal"), and bile or gall. Oldest form *g̑hel‑, becoming *ghel‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include gold , arsenic , melancholy , Hare Krishna , gleam , glimpse , and glide.

Words denoting colors.
1. Suffixed form *ghel-wo‑. yellow , from Old English geolu, yellow, from Germanic *gelwaz.
2. Suffixed variant form *ghlō-ro‑. chloro- ; chlorite ¹, from Greek khlōros, green, greenish yellow.
3. Suffixed variant form *ghlo-wo‑. chloasma , from Greek khloos (< *khlo-wo-s), greenish color.
4. O-grade form *ghol‑. podzol , from Russian zola, ashes (from their color).
5. Suffixed form *ghel-i‑. Hare Krishna , Harijan , from Sanskrit hari‑, tawny yellow.
6. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *ghl̥-wo‑ in Latin fulvus, tawny (with dialectal f‑ as in fel, gall) fulvous ; griseofulvin .
Words denoting gold.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghl̥-to‑.
  1. gold , from Old English gold, gold;
  2. gild ¹, from Old English gyldan, to gild, from Germanic denominative verb *gulthjan;
  3. guilder , gulden , from Middle Dutch gulden, golden;
  4. gowan , from Middle English gollan, yellow flower, possibly from a source akin to Old Norse gullinn, golden. a-d all from Germanic *gultham, gold.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-to‑. zloty , from Polish złoto, gold.
3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-no‑. arsenic , from Syriac zarnīkā, orpiment, from Middle Iranian *zarnīk‑, from Old Iranian *zarna‑, golden.
Words denoting bile.
1. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-no‑. gall ¹, from Old English gealla, gall, from Germanic *gallōn‑, bile.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-ā‑. chole- , choler , cholera ; acholia , melancholy , from Greek kholē, bile.
3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-n‑. felon ², from Latin fel, bile.
A range of Germanic words (where no preforms are given, the words are late creations).
1. gleam , from Old English glǣm, bright light, gleam, from Germanic *glaimiz.
2. glimpse , from Middle English glimsen, to glimpse, from a source akin to Middle High German glimsen, to gleam.
3. glint , from Middle English glent, a glint, and glenten, to shine, from a source akin to Swedish dialectal glinta, to shine.
4. glimmer , from Middle English glimeren, to glimmer, from a source akin to Swedish glimra, glimmer.
5. glitter , from Old Norse glitra, to shine.
6. glitz , from Old High German glīzan, to sparkle.
7. glisten , from Old English glisnian, to shine.
8. glister , from Middle Dutch glinsteren or Middle Low German glisteren, to shine.
9. glass , glaze , glazier , from Old English glæs, glass, from Germanic *glasam, glass.
10. glare ¹, from Middle English glaren, to glitter, stare, from a source akin to Middle Low German glaren, to glisten, from Germanic *glaz‑.
11. gloss ¹, from a source perhaps akin to Icelandic glossi, a spark.
12. glance ², from Old High German glanz, bright.
13. gleg , from Old Norse glöggr, clear-sighted.
14. glad ¹, from Old English glæd, shining, joyful, from Germanic *gladaz.
15. glee ; gleeman , from Old English glēo, sport, merriment, from Germanic *gleujam.
16. 1. gleed , from Old English glēd, ember;
  2. glogg , from Old Norse glodh, ember. Both a and b from Germanic *glō-di‑.
17. 1. glow , from Old English glōwan, to glow;
  2. glow , from Old High German gluoen, to glow;
  3. glower , from Middle English gloren, to gleam, stare, probably from a source akin to Norwegian dialectal glora, to gleam, stare;
  4. gloat , from a source perhaps akin to Old Norse glotta, to smile (scornfully). a-d all from Germanic *glō‑.
18. gloaming , from Old English glōm, twilight, from Germanic *glō-m‑.
19. Possibly distantly related to this root is Germanic *glīdan, to glide.
  1. glide , from Old English glīdan, to slip, glide;
  2. glissade , from Old French glier, to glide;
  3. glitch , from Old High German glītan, to glide;
  4. glede , from Old English glida, kite (< "gliding, hovering bird"), from derivative Germanic *glidōn‑.
20. glib , from a source possibly akin to Middle Low German glibberich, slippery.

||[Pokorny 1. g̑hel‑ 429.]

r159_ ‌ ‌ ghedh-
To unite, join, fit.

Lengthened o-grade form *ghōdh‑. good , from Old English gōd, good, from Germanic *gōdaz, "fitting, suitable.".
together , from Old English tōgædere, together (tō, to; see de- ), from Germanic *gadurī, "in a body.".
gather , from Old English gad(e)rian, to gather, from Germanic *gadurōn, "to come or bring together.".

||[Pokorny ghedh‑ 423.]

r160_ ‌ ‌ ghend-
Also ghed-.
To seize, take.
Derivatives include get , guess , prison , comprehend , surprise , and prey.

1. get ¹, from Old Norse geta, to get;
2. beget , from Old English beg(i)etan, to get, beget, from Germanic compound *bigetan, to acquire (*bi‑, intensive prefix; see ambhi );
3. forget , from Old English forg(i)etan, to forget, from Germanic compound *fer-getan, "to lose one's hold," forget (*fer‑, prefix denoting rejection; see per ¹). a-c all from Germanic *getan.
guess , from Middle English gessen, to guess, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish gissa, to guess, from Germanic *getisōn, "to try to get," aim at.
Basic form *ghend‑. prehensile , prehension , prison , prize ², prize ³, pry ²; apprehend , apprentice , apprise , comprehend , comprise , emprise , enterprise , entrepreneur , impresario , misprision ¹, pregnable , reprehend , reprieve , reprisal , reprise , surprise , from Latin prehendere, prēndere, to get hold of, seize, grasp (pre‑, prae‑, before; see per ¹).
Form *ghed‑. predatory , prey , spree ; depredate , osprey , from Latin praeda, booty (< *prai-heda, "something seized before"; prai‑, prae‑, before; see per ¹).

||[Pokorny ghend‑ 437.]

r161_ ‌ ‌ gher-¹
To grasp, enclose; with derivatives meaning "enclosure." Oldest form *g̑her‑, becoming *gher‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include orchard , kindergarten , courteous , choir , and choral.

Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr̥-dh‑.
1. gird ¹, girt ¹, from Old English gyrdan, to gird, from Germanic *gurdjan;
2. girdle , from Old English gyrdel, girdle;
3. girth , from Old Norse gjördh, girdle, girth.
Suffixed o-grade form *ghor-to‑ or (in Germanic) *ghor-dho‑, an enclosure.
1. 1. yard ²; orchard , from Old English geard, enclosure, garden, yard;
  2. garth ; Asgard , from Old Norse gardhr, enclosure, garden, yard;
  3. kindergarten , from Old High German garto, garden;
  4. garden , jardinière , from Old North French gart, garden;
  5. hangar , from Old French hangard, shelter, possibly from Germanic *haimgardaz (*haimaz, home; see tkei- );
  6. Germanic compound *midja-gardaz (see medhyo- ). (i)-(vi) all from Germanic *gardaz.
2. horticulture , ortolan , from Latin hortus, garden.
Prefixed and suffixed zero-grade form *ko(m)-ghr̥-ti‑ (*ko(m)‑, collective prefix, "together"; see kom ). cohort , cortege , court , courteous , courtesan , courtesy , courtier , curtilage , curtsy , from Latin cohors (stem cohort‑), enclosed yard, company of soldiers, multitude.
Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *ghor-o‑. carol , choir , choral , chorale , choric , chorister , chorus , hora ; choragus , Terpsichore , from Greek khoros, dancing ground (? perhaps originally a special enclosure for dancing), dance, dramatic chorus.

||[Pokorny 4. g̑her‑ 442, g̑herdh‑ 444.]

r162_ ‌ ‌ gher-²
To like, want. Oldest form *g̑her‑, becoming *gher‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *gher-n‑. yearn , from Old English giernan, gyrnan, to strive, desire, yearn, from Germanic *gernjan.
Possibly extended form *ghrē‑.
1. greedy , from Old English grǣdig, hungry, covetous, greedy, from Germanic *grēdiga‑, hungry, formed from *grēduz, hunger;
2. catachresis , chrestomathy , from Greek khrēsthai, to lack, want, use, from khrē, it is necessary.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr̥-to‑. hortative ; exhort , from Latin hortārī, to urge on, encourage (< "to cause to strive or desire").
Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr̥-i‑. charisma ; Eucharist , from Greek kharis, grace, favor.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr̥-yo‑. chervil , from Greek khairein, to rejoice, delight in.

||[Pokorny 1. g̑her‑ 440.]

r163_ ‌ ‌ gherə-
Gut, entrail. Oldest form *g̑herh₂‑, becoming *gherh₂‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *gherə-no‑. yarn , from Old English gearn, yarn, from Germanic *garnō, string.
Suffixed form *gherə-n‑. hernia , from Latin hernia, "protruded viscus," rupture, hernia.
Suffixed o-grade form *ghorə-d‑. chord ², cord , cordon ; harpsichord , hexachord , tetrachord , from Greek khordē, gut, string.
O-grade form *ghorə‑. chorion , from Greek khorion, intestinal membrane, afterbirth.
Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghr̥ə-u‑. haruspex , from Latin haruspex, "he who inspects entrails," diviner (-spex,"he who sees"; see spek- ), but perhaps borrowed from Etruscan.

||[Pokorny 5. g̑her‑ 443.]

r164_ ‌ ‌ ghes-
Hand. Oldest form *g̑hes‑, becoming *ghes‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *ghes-ōr, stem *ghes-(e)r‑. chiro- ; chironomid , chirurgeon , enchiridion , surgeon , surgery , from Greek kheir, hand.
Suffixed form *ghes-to‑. press ², presto ; imprest , from Latin praestō, at hand, perhaps from prefixed form *prai-ghes-to‑ (*prai‑, before; see per ¹).

||[Pokorny 1. g̑hesor‑ 447.]

r165_ ‌ ‌ gheslo-
Seen by some as a base for words meaning "thousand." Oldest form *g̑heslo‑, becoming *gheslo‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *ghesl-yo‑. chiliad , kilo- , from Greek khīlioi, thousand.
Compound *sm̥-gheslo‑ (*sm̥‑, one; see sem- ¹). Hazara , from Old Iranian *hazahram, thousand.
mil ¹, mile , millenary , millesimal , milli- , milliary , millime , million ; milfoil , millefiori glass , millefleur , millennium , millepore , millipede , per mil , from Latin mīlle, thousand, which has been analyzed as *smī‑, "one" + a form *ghslī‑, but is of obscure origin.

||[Pokorny g̑héslo‑ 446.]

r166_ ‌ ‌ gheu-
To pour, pour a libation. Oldest form *g̑heu‑, becoming *gheu‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include gut , funnel , fusion , and refund. ¹

Extended form *gheud‑.
1. Zero-grade form *ghud‑.
  1. gut , from Old English guttas, intestines, from Germanic *gut‑;
  2. gyttja , from Swedish gyttja, perhaps from Germanic *gutjōn.
2. Nasalized zero-grade form *ghu-n-d‑. foison , fondant , fondue , font ², found ², funnel , fuse ², fusile , fusion ; affusion , circumfuse , confound , confuse , diffuse , effuse , infuse , perfuse , profuse , refund , refuse ¹, refuse ², suffuse , transfuse , from Latin fundere, to melt, pour out.
Extended form *gheus‑.
1. 1. gust ¹, from Old Norse gustr, a cold blast of wind, from Germanic suffixed form *gustiz;
  2. gush , from Middle English gushen, to gush, perhaps akin to Icelandic gusa, to gush. Both a and b from Germanic zero-grade form *gus‑.
2. geyser , from Old Norse geysa, to gush, from Germanic suffixed o-grade form *gausjan.
3. 1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghus-mo‑. chyme ; ecchymosis , from Greek khūmos, juice;
  2. suffixed zero-grade form *ghus-lo‑. chyle , from Greek khūlos, juice.
Suffixed form *gheu-ti‑. futile , from Latin fūtilis, "(of a vessel) easily emptied, leaky," hence untrustworthy, useless.
Basic form *gheu‑.
1. alchemy , parenchyma , from Greek khein (stem form khu‑), to pour.
2. O-grade form *ghou‑.
  1. choanocyte , from Greek khoanē (< *khowanā), funnel;
  2. oinochoe , from Greek khoē (< *khowā), a pouring.
Suffixed zero-grade from *ghu-trā. chytrid , from Greek khutrā, pot.

||[Pokorny g̑heu‑ 447.]

r167_ ‌ ‌ gheu(ə)-
To call, invoke. Oldest form *g̑heu(h_2/3)‑, becoming *gheu(h_2/3)‑ in centum languages. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghu-to‑, "the invoked," god.

god , from Old English god, god;
giddy , from Old English gydig, gidig, possessed, insane, from Germanic *gud-iga‑, possessed by a god;
götterdämmerung , from Old High German got, god. a-c all from Germanic *gudam, god.

||[Pokorny g̑hau‑ 413.]

r168_ ‌ ‌ ghos-ti-
Stranger, guest, host; properly "someone with whom one has reciprocal duties of hospitality."

Basic form *ghos-ti‑.
1. 1. guest , from Old Norse gestr, guest;
  2. Gastarbeiter , from Old High German gast, guest. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *gastiz.
2. host ², hostile , from Latin hostis, enemy (< "stranger").
Compound *ghos-pot‑, *ghos-po(d)‑, "guest-master," one who symbolizes the relationship of reciprocal obligation (*pot‑, master; see poti- ). hospice , hospitable , hospital , hospitality , host ¹, hostage , hostel , hostler , from Latin hospes (stem hospit‑), host, guest, stranger.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ghs-en-wo‑. xenia , xeno- , xenon ; axenic , euxenite , pyroxene , from Greek xenos, guest, host, stranger.

||[Pokorny ghosti-s 453.]

r169_ ‌ ‌ ghrē-
To grow, become green. Contracted from *ghreh₁‑.

O-grade form *ghrō‑. grow , from Old English grōwan, to grow, from Germanic *grō(w)an.
Suffixed o-grade form *ghrō-n-yo‑. green , from Old English grēne, green, from Germanic *grōnjaz, green.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ghrə-so‑. grass , graze ¹, from Old English græs, grass, from Germanic *grasam, grass.

||[Pokorny (ghrē‑) 454.]

r170_ ‌ ‌ ghrebh-¹
To seize, reach.

Zero-grade form *ghr̥bh‑. Satyagraha , from Sanskrit gṛbhṇāti, gṛhṇāti, he seizes.
1. grasp , from Middle English graspen, to grasp;
2. grab ¹, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German grabben, to seize. Both a and b from parallel (imitative) Germanic creations with base *grab‑, *grap‑.

||[Pokorny 1. ghrebh‑ 455.]

r171_ ‌ ‌ ghrebh-²
To dig, bury, scratch.

O-grade form *ghrobh‑.
1. 1. grave ³, engrave , from Old English grafan, to dig, engrave, scratch, carve;
  2. graben , from Old High German graban, to dig;
  3. gravlax , from Swedish grava, to bury;
  4. gravure , from Old French graver, to engrave. (i)-(iv) all from Germanic *graban.
2. grave ¹, from Old English græf, trench, grave, from Germanic *grabam.
grub , from Old English *grybban, to dig, from Germanic *grub(b)jan (with secondary ablaut).
groove , from Middle Dutch groeve, ditch, from Germanic *grōbō.

||[Pokorny 2. ghrebh‑ 455.]

r172_ ‌ ‌ ghredh-
To walk, go. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr̥dh-yo‑.

aggress , congress , degression , digress , egress , ingredient , ingress , introgression , plantigrade , progress , regress , retrograde , retrogress , tardigrade , transgress , from Latin gradī (past participle gressus), to walk, go;
grade , gradual , graduate , gree ; centigrade , degrade , degree , from Latin gradus (< deverbative *grad-u‑), step, stage, degree, rank.

||[Pokorny ghredh‑ 456.]

r173_ ‌ ‌ ghrēi-
To rub. Oldest form *g̑hreh₁i‑, with variant (metathesized) form *g̑hreih₁‑, whence zero-grade *g̑hrih₁‑, becoming *g̑hrī‑in satem language and *ghrī‑ in centum languages.

grisly , from Old English grislīc, terrifying, from Germanic *gris‑, to frighten (< "to grate on the mind").
grime , from Middle English grime, grime, from a source akin to Middle Dutch grīme, grime, from Germanic *grīm‑, smear.
Extended form *ghrīs‑. chrism , Christ ², christen , Christian ; Christmas , cream , Kriss Kringle , from Greek khrīein, to anoint.

||[Pokorny ghrēi‑ 457.]

r174_ ‌ ‌ ghrendh-
To grind.

grind , from Old English grindan, to grind, from Germanic *grindan.
grist , from Old English grīst, the action of grinding, from Germanic *grinst‑, a grinding.
fraise , frenulum , frenum ; refrain ¹, from Latin frendere, to grind.
Sometimes but improbably regarded as from this root (in variant form *ghrend‑) is Greek khondros, granule, groats, hence cartilage chondro- ; hypochondria , mitochondrion .

||[Pokorny ghren‑ 459.]

r175_ ‌ ‌ ghwer-
Wild beast. Oldest form *g̑hwer‑, becoming *ghwer‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *ghwer-o‑. feral , ferine , fierce , from Latin ferus, wild.
Compound *ghwero-ək^w‑, "of wild aspect" (*-ək^w‑,"-looking"; see ok^w- ). ferocious , from Latin ferōx (stem ferōc‑), fierce.
Lengthened-grade form *ghwēr‑. treacle ; baluchitherium , dinotherium , eutherian , indricotherium , megatherium , theropod , from Greek thēr, wild beast.

||[Pokorny g̑hu̯ē̆r‑ 493.]

r176_ ‌ ‌ ghwībh-
Shame, also pudenda. Expressive root, found only in Tocharian (in the literal meaning) and Germanic.

wife ; hussy , from Old English wīf, woman, from Germanic *wībam, woman (with semantic weakening from the original meaning; for the semantics, compare the histories of pudendum and cunt).
woman , from Old English compound wīf-man(n), "woman-person, wife person," female (as opposed to wæpen-man(n), "weapon-person," male, with clear sexual overtones).

||[Not in Pokorny; compare Tocharian B kwīpe and Tocharian A kip, female pudenda.]

r177_ ‌ ‌ gleubh-
To tear apart, cleave.
Derivatives include clever , and hieroglyphic.

Basic form *gleubh‑.
1. cleave ¹, from Old English clēofan, to split, cleave, from Germanic *kleuban.
2. Probably o-grade form *gloubh‑. clever , from Middle English cliver, nimble, skillful, perhaps akin to East Frisian klüfer, klifer, skillful, and Old Norse kleyfr, easy to split, from Germanic *klaubri‑.
Zero-grade form *glubh‑.
1. 1. clove ², from Old English clufu, clove (of garlic);
  2. kloof , from Middle Dutch clove, a cleft;
  3. clevis , from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse klofi, a cleft. a-c all from Germanic *klub‑, a splitting.
2. cleft , from Old English geclyft, fissure, from Germanic *klufti‑(*klub-ti‑).
3. glyph , glyptic ; anaglyph , hieroglyphic , from Greek gluphein, to carve.
4. Suffixed zero-grade form *glubh-mā‑. glume , from Latin glūma, husk of grain.

||[Pokorny gleubh‑ 401.]

r178_ ‌ ‌ gnō-
To know. Oldest form *g̑neh₃‑, colored to *g̑noh₃‑, becoming *g̑nō‑ in satem languages and *gnō‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include know , cunning , uncouth , ignore , noble , diagnosis , and narrate.

Variant form *gnē‑, contracted from *gnēə‑. know ; knowledge , acknowledge , from Old English cnāwan, to know, from Germanic *knē(w)‑.
Zero-grade form *gn̥ə‑.
1. can ¹, con ², cunning , from Old English cunnan, to know, know how to, be able to, from Germanic *kunnan (Old English first and third singular can from Germanic *kann from o-grade *gonə‑);
2. ken , kenning , from Old English cennan, to declare, and Old Norse kenna, to know, name (in a formal poetic metaphor), from Germanic causative verb *kannjan, to make known;
3. couth ; uncouth , from Old English cūth, known, well-known, usual, excellent, familiar, from Germanic *kunthaz;
4. kith and kin , from Old English cȳth(the), cȳththu, knowledge, acquaintance, friendship, kinfolk, from Germanic *kunthithō.
Suffixed form *gnō-sko‑. notice , notify , notion , notorious ; acquaint , cognition , cognizance , connoisseur , incognito , quaint , recognize , reconnaissance , reconnoiter , from Latin (g)nōscere, cognōscere, to get to know, get acquainted with.
Suffixed form *gnō-ro‑. ignorant , ignore , from Latin ignōrāre, not to know, to disregard (i‑, for in‑, not; see ne ).
Suffixed form *gnō-dhli‑. noble , from Latin nōbilis, knowable, known, famous, noble.
Reduplicated and suffixed form *gi-gnō-sko‑. gnome ², gnomon , gnosis , Gnostic ; agnosia , diagnosis , noscapine , pathognomonic , physiognomy , prognosis , from Greek gignōskein, to know, think, judge (verbal adjective gnōtos, known), with gnōsis (< *gnō-ti‑), knowledge, inquiry, and gnōmōn, judge, interpreter.
Suffixed zero-grade form *gn̥ə-ro‑. narrate , from Latin narrāre (< *gnarrāre), to tell, relate, from gnārus, knowing, expert.
Suffixed zero-grade form *gn̥ə-ti‑. Zend-Avesta , from Avestan zainti‑, knowledge (remade from *zāti‑).
Traditionally but improbably referred here are:
1. note ; annotate , connote , prothonotary , from Latin nota, a mark, note, sign, cipher, shorthand character;
2. norm , Norma , normal ; abnormal , enormous , from Latin norma, carpenter's square, rule, pattern, precept, possibly from an Etruscan borrowing of Greek gnōmōn, carpenter's square, rule.

||[Pokorny 2. g̑en‑ 376.]

r179_ ‌ ‌ gr̥ə-no-
Grain. Oldest form *g̑r̥h₂-no‑, becoming *gr̥h₂-no‑ in centum languages.

1. corn ¹, from Old English corn, grain;
2. kernel , from Old English derivative noun cyrnel, seed, pip;
3. einkorn , from Old High German korn, grain. a-c all from Germanic *kornam.
garner , garnet ¹, grain , gram ², granadilla , granary , grange , grani- , granita , granite , granule , grenade , grenadine ; filigree , grosgrain , pomegranate , from Latin grānum, grain.

|| ||[Pokorny g̑er‑ 390.]

r180_ ‌ ‌ g^wā-
Also g^wem-.
To go, come. Oldest form *g^weh₂‑, colored to *g^wah₂‑, becoming *g^wā‑.
Derivatives include welcome , adventure , souvenir , acrobat , and diabetes.

1. come , from Old English cuman, to come;
2. welcome , from Old English wilcuma, a welcome guest, and wilcume, the greeting of welcome, from Germanic compound *wil-kumōn‑, a desirable guest (*wil‑, desirable; see wel- ¹), from *kumōn‑, he who comes, a guest;
3. become , from Old English becuman, to become, from Germanic compound *bi-kuman, to arrive, come to be (*bi‑, intensive prefix; see ambhi ). a-c all from Germanic *kuman.
Suffixed form *g^w(e)m-yo‑. venire , venue ; advent , adventitious , adventure , avenue , circumvent , contravene , convene , convenient , convent , conventicle , convention , coven , covenant , event , eventual , intervene , invent , inventory , misadventure , parvenu , prevenient , prevent , provenance , provenience , revenant , revenue , souvenir , subvention , supervene , from Latin venīre, to come.
Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wm̥-yo‑. base ¹, basis ; abasia , acrobat , adiabatic , amphisbaena , anabaena , anabasis , batophobia , diabase , diabetes , hyperbaton , katabatic , stereobate , stylobate , from Greek bainein, to go, walk, step, with basis (< *g^wə-ti‑, suffixed zero-grade form of *gwā‑), a stepping, tread, base, -batos (< *g^wə-to‑), going, and -batēs (< *g^wə-tā‑), agential suffix, "one that goes or treads, one that is based.".
Suffixed lengthened-grade form g^wēm-yo‑. quim , perhaps from Old English gecwēme, pleasant, fitting ("becoming"), from Germanic *-kwǣmja‑. (*ge‑, intensive prefix; see kom ).
Suffixed zero-grade form *g^w(ə)-u‑ in compound *pres-g^wu‑ (see per ¹).
Basic form *g^wā‑. bema , from Greek bēma, step, seat, raised platform.
Basic form *g^wā‑ or zero-grade form *g^wm̥‑ in Sanskrit compound durga‑, difficult to approach (*dus‑, *dur‑, difficult; see dus- ). Durga , from Sanskrit Durgā, Durga (short for durgā devī, goddess who is difficult to approach), from durgā, feminine of durga‑.
Reduplicated form *g^we-g^wā‑. juggernaut , from Sanskrit jagat, moving, the world, originally present participle of *jagāti (remade as jigāti), he goes.

||[Pokorny g^u̯ā‑ 463.]

r181_ ‌ ‌ g^wei-
To live. Also g^weiə- (oldest form *g^weih₃‑, with metathesized variant *g^wyeh₃‑, colored to *g^wyoh₃‑, becoming *g^wyō‑).
Derivatives include quick , vivid , vitamin , whiskey , amphibious , microbe , and hygiene.

Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wi-wo‑, *g^wī-wo‑ (< *g^wiə-wo‑), living.
1. 1. quick , quicksilver , from Old English cwic, cwicu, living, alive;
  2. couch grass , quitch grass , from Old English cwice, couch grass (so named from its rapid growth). Both a and b from Germanic *kwi(k)waz.
2. 1. 1. sempervivum , vivify , viviparous , from Latin vīvus, living, alive;
    2. viper , weever , wyvern , from Latin vīpera, viper, contracted from *vīvipera, "bearing live young" (from the belief that it hatches its eggs inside its body), from feminine of earlier *vīvo-paros (-paros, bearing; see perə- ¹).
  2. viand , victual , viva , vivacious , vivid ; convivial , revive , survive , from Latin denominative vīvere, to live.
3. azoth , from Middle Persian *zhīwak, alive, from Old Persian *jīvaka‑, extension of jīva‑.
4. Further suffixed form *g^wī-wo-tā‑. viable , vital ; vitamin , from Latin vīta, life.
5. Further suffixed form *g^wi-wo-tūt‑. usquebaugh , whiskey , from Old Irish bethu, life.
Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wiə-o‑. bio- , biota , biotic ; aerobe , amphibian , anabiosis , cenobite , dendrobium , microbe , rhizobium , saprobe , symbiosis , from Greek bios, life (> biotē, way of life).
Variant form *g^wyō‑ (< *g^wyoə‑).
1. azo- ; diazo , hylozoism , from Greek zōē, zoē, life.
2. Suffixed form *g^wyō-yo‑. zodiac , -zoic , zoo- , zoon ¹, -zoon , from Greek zōon, zōion, living being, animal.
Compound suffixed form *yu-g^wiə-es‑ (see aiw- ).
Possibly Old English cwifer‑, nimble quiver ¹.

||[Pokorny 3. g^u̯ei̯‑ 467.]

r182_ ‌ ‌ g^welə-
Also g^wel-.
To throw, reach, with further meaning to pierce. Oldest form *g^welh₁‑, with metathesized variant *g^wleh₁‑, becoming *g^wlē‑.
Derivatives include devil , emblem , metabolism , parliament , problem , symbol , ballet , and kill. ¹

Words denoting to throw, reach. Variant *g^wlē‑, contracted from *g^wleə‑.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wl̥-n-ə‑.
  1. ballista ; amphibole , arbalest , astrobleme , bolide , devil , diabolical , embolism , emboly , epiboly , hyperbola , hyperbole , metabolism , palaver , parable , parabola , parley , parliament , parlor , parol , parole , Polari , problem , symbol , from Greek ballein, to throw (with o-grade *bol‑ and variant *blē‑);
  2. ball ², ballad , ballet , bayadere , from Greek ballizein, to dance.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *g^wol(ə)-ā‑. bolometer , from Greek bolē, beam, ray.
3. Possible suffixed o-grade form *g^wol(ə)-sā‑. boule ¹, abulia , from Greek boulē, determination, will (< "throwing forward of the mind"), council.
4. Suffixed full-grade form *g^welə-mno‑. belemnite , from Greek belemnon, dart, javelin.
Words denoting to pierce.
1. Suffixed o-grade form *g^wol-eyo‑.
  1. quell , from Old English cwellan, to kill, destroy;
  2. quail ², from Middle Dutch quelen, to be ill, suffer. Both a and b from Germanic *kwaljan.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wl̥-yo‑. kill ¹, from Middle English killen, to kill, perhaps from Old English *cyllan, to kill, from Germanic *kuljan.
3. Full-grade form *g^wel‑. belonephobia , from Greek belonē, needle.

||[Pokorny 2. g^u̯el‑ 471, 1. g^u̯el‑ 470.]

r183_ ‌ ‌ g^wen-
Woman.

Suffixed form *g^wen-ā‑.
1. quean , from Old English cwene, woman, prostitute, wife, from Germanic *kwenōn‑;
2. banshee , from Old Irish ben, woman;
3. zenana , from Persian zan, woman.
Suffixed lengthened-grade form *g^wēn-i‑. queen , from Old English cwēn, woman, wife, queen, from Germanic *kwēniz.
Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wn̥-ā‑. gyne , -gyne , gyno- , -gynous , -gyny ; gynecocracy , gynecology , gynoecium , from Greek gunē, woman.

||[Pokorny g^u̯ē̆nā 473.]

r184_ ‌ ‌ g^werə-¹
Heavy. Oldest form *g^werh₂‑.
Derivatives include grave ², grief , aggravate , baritone , guru , brute , and blitzkrieg.

Zero-grade form *g^wr̥ə‑.
1. Suffixed form *g^wr̥ə-wi‑. grave ², gravid , gravimeter , gravitate , gravity , grief , grieve ; aggravate , aggrieve , from Latin gravis, heavy, weighty.
2. Suffixed form *g^wr̥ə-u‑.
  1. barite , barium , baryon , baryta ; baritone , barycenter , barysphere , charivari , from Greek barus, heavy;
  2. guru , from Sanskrit guru‑, heavy, venerable.
3. Suffixed form *g^wr̥ə-es‑. bar ², baro- ; centrobaric , isallobar , isobar , from Greek baros, weight.
4. Possibly *g^wrī̆‑ in Greek compound *u(d)-bri‑ (see ud- ).
Suffixed extended form *g^wrū-to‑. brut , brute , from Latin brūtus, heavy, unwieldy, dull, stupid, brutish.
Suffixed extended form *g^wrī-g‑.
1. brio , from Spanish brio or Provençal briu, vigor, from Celtic *brīg-o‑, strength;
2. brig , brigade , brigand , brigantine , from Old Italian briga, strife, from Celtic *brīg-ā‑, strife;
3. blitzkrieg , sitzkrieg , from Old High German krēg, chrēg, stubbornness, from Germanic *krīg‑.
Suffixed full-grade form *g^werə-nā‑, millstone. quern , from Old English cweorn, quern.

||[Pokorny 2. g^u̯er‑ 476.]

r185_ ‌ ‌ g^werə-²
To favor. Oldest form *g^werh₂‑.

Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wr̥ə-to‑. grace , grateful , gratify , gratis , gratitude , gratuitous , gratuity ; agree , congratulate , disgrace , ingrate , ingratiate , maugre , from Latin grātus, pleasing, beloved, agreeable, favorable, thankful, with related suffixed forms *g^wr̥ə-ti‑, *g^wr̥ə-t-ā‑, *g^wr̥ə-t-olo‑.
Probably compound zero-grade form *g^wr̥ə-dh(ə)-o‑, "he who makes praises" (*-dh(ə)‑, to do; see dhē- ). bard ¹, from Welsh bardd and Scottish and Irish Gaelic bard, bard, from Celtic bardo‑, bard.

||[Pokorny 4. g^u̯er(ə)‑ 478.]

r186_ ‌ ‌ g^wet-
To say, speak.

Basic form *g^wet‑. bequeath , quoth , from Old English cwethan, to say, speak, from Germanic *kwithan.
Suffixed form *g^wet-ti‑. bequest , from Old English -cwis, will, from Germanic *kwessiz.

||[Pokorny 2. g^u̯et‑ 480.]

r187_ ‌ ‌ g^whedh-
To ask, pray.

Suffixed form *g^whedh-yo‑. bid , from Old English biddan, to ask, pray, from Germanic *bidjan, to pray, entreat.
bead , from Old English bed(u), gebed, prayer (ge‑, intensive and collective prefix; see kom ), from Germanic *bidam, entreaty.
Suffixed form *g^whedh-to‑. infest , manifest , from Latin -festus, probably in īnfestus, hostile (< *n̥-g^whedh-to‑, "inexorable"; *n̥‑, not; see ne ) and perhaps in manifestus, caught in the act, red-handed (manus, hand; see man- ²).

||[Pokorny g^u̯hedh‑ 488, 2. bhedh‑ 114.]

r188_ ‌ ‌ g^when-
To strike, kill.
Derivatives include bane , fence , and offend.

O-grade form *g^whon‑.
1. bane , from Old English bana, slayer, cause of ruin or destruction;
2. autobahn , from Middle High German ban, bane, way, road (< "strike" in a technical sense like "swath"). Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *ban-ōn‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *g^whn̥-tyā‑.
1. gun , from Old Norse gunnr, war;
2. gonfalon , from Italian gonfalone, standard, from Germanic compound *gund-fanōn‑, "battle flag" (*fanōn‑, flag; see pan- ). Both a and b from Germanic *gundjō, war, battle.
Suffixed form *g^when-do‑.
1. defend , defense , fence , fend , from Latin dēfendere, to ward off (dē‑, away; see de- );
2. offend , offense , from Latin offendere, to strike against, be offensive, offend (ob‑, against; see epi ).
Suffixed zero-grade form *g^whn̥-tro‑. bezoar , from Persian zahr, poison, from Old Iranian *jathra‑.
Full-grade form *g^when‑. bonze , kalanchoe , sangha , from Sanskrit hanti, he strikes.

||[Pokorny 2. g^u̯hen-(ə)‑ 491, bhen‑ 126.]

r189_ ‌ ‌ g^wher-
To heat, warm.
Derivatives include brand , brandy , forceps , and fornicate.

Zero-grade form *g^whr‑.
1. burn ¹, from Old English beornan, byrnan (intransitive) and bærnan (transitive), to burn;
2. brimstone , from late Old English brynstān, "burning mineral," sulfur (stān, stone; see stāi- );
3. brindled , from Old Norse brenna, to burn. a-c all from Germanic *brennan (intransitive) and brannjan (transitive), formed from *brenw‑ with nasal suffix and analogical vocalism.
1. brand , from Old English brand, piece of burning wood, sword;
2. brandy , from Dutch branden, to burn, distill;
3. brandish , from Old French brand, sword;
4. brandade , from Old Provençal brand, sword. a-d all from Germanic *brandaz, a burning, a flaming torch, hence also a sword.
Suffixed form *g^wher-m(n)o‑. therm , -therm , thermo- , -thermy ; hypothermia , lobster thermidor , from Greek thermos, warm, hot, and thermē, heat.
O-grade form *g^whor‑. forceps , forcipate , from Latin forceps, pincers, fire tongs (< "that which holds hot things"; -ceps, agential suffix, "-taker"; see kap- ).
Suffixed o-grade form *g^whor-no‑.
1. Fornax , furnace , hornito , from Latin furnus, fornus, fornāx, oven;
2. probably Latin fornix, arch, vault (< "vaulted brick oven") fornicate , fornix .
Suffixed zero-grade form *g^whr̥-to‑, heated, likely source of Sanskrit ghṛtam, ghee, clarified butter ghee .

||[Pokorny g^u̯her‑ 493, bh(e)reu‑ 143.]

r190_ ‌ ‌ g^whī-
Thread, tendon. Oldest full-grade form *g^whyeh_x‑, with zero-grade form *g^whih_x‑ becoming *g^whī‑.

Full-grade form g^whyeə‑. zij , ultimately from Old Iranian *ǰyā‑, bowstring (attested in Avestan ǰyā‑).
Suffixed form *g^whī-slo‑. ficelle , filament , filar , filaria , file ¹, fillet , filose , filum ; defile ², enfilade , filiform , filigree , filoplume , filovirus , profile , purfle , from Latin fīlum, thread.

||[Pokorny g^u̯heiə‑ 489.]

r191_ ‌ ‌ g^whrē-
To smell, breathe. Oldest form *g^whreh₁‑, becoming *g^whrē.

: breath , breathe , from Old English brǣth, odor, exhalation, from Germanic suffixed form *brē-thaz.

||[Pokorny g^u̯hrē‑ 495.]

r192_ ‌ ‌ g^whren-
To think.

frantic , frenetic , frenzy , -phrenia , phreno- ; phrenitis , from Greek phrēn, the mind, also heart, midriff, diaphragm.
Extended zero-grade root form *g^whrn̥-d‑. phrase ; holophrastic , metaphrase , paraphrase , periphrasis , from Greek phrazein, to point out, show.

||[Pokorny g^u̯hren‑ 496.]

r193_ ‌ ‌ g^wou-
Ox, bull, cow. Nominative singular form *g^wōu-s.
Derivatives include cow ¹, beef , bugle ¹, and butter.

cow ¹, kine ; cowslip , from Old English cū, cȳ, cȳe, cow, from Germanic *kōuz (> *kūz).
1. beef , bovine , bugle ¹, from Latin bōs (stem bov‑), ox, bull, cow;
2. buccinator , from Latin būcina, horn, trumpet, from *bou-kanā‑, "bellower" (*-kanā‑, singer; see kan- ).
1. Boötes , boustrophedon , bucolic , bugloss , bulimia , bumelia , buprestid , butter , butyric , from Greek bous, ox, bull, cow;
2. buffalo , from Greek boubalos, buffalo, perhaps from bous;
3. boy , perhaps from Old French buie, fetter, shackle, from Latin bōia, collar used to restrain a criminal (originally made from ox hide), from Greek boeiā, ox hide, from bous.
gayal ; guar , Gurkha , kouprey , nilgai , from Sanskrit gauḥ, go‑, cow.
Suffixed form *g^wou-no‑. gunny , from Pali goṇa‑, ox.
Suffixed form *g^wōu-ro‑. gaur , from Sanskrit gauraḥ, wild ox.
Zero-grade suffixed form *g^ww-ā‑. hecatomb , from Greek hekatombē, "sacrifice of a hundred oxen" (hekaton, hundred; see dekm̥ ).

||[Pokorny g^u̯ou‑ 482.]

r194_ ‌ ‌ i-
Pronominal stem.
Derivatives include yonder , identity , and item.

ilk ¹, from Old English ilca, same, from Germanic *is-līk‑ (*līk‑, like; see līk- ).
yon , from Old English geon, that, from Germanic *jaino‑, *jeno‑.
1. yond , yonder , from Old English geond, as far as, yonder, from Germanic *jend‑;
2. beyond , from Old English geondan, beyond, from Germanic *jendana‑.
Extended forms *yām, *yāi. yea ¹, yes , from Old English gēa, affirmative particle, and gēse, yes (see es- ), from Germanic *jā, *jai.
yet , from Old English gīet, gīeta still (preform uncertain).
Relative stem *yo‑ plus particle. if , from Old English gif, if, from Germanic *ja-ba.
Basic form *i‑, with neuter *id-em. id , idem , identical , identity ; identify , from Latin is, he (neuter id, it), and īdem, same.
Suffixed form *i-tero‑. iterate ; reiterate , from Latin iterum, again.
Suffixed and extended form *it(ə)-em. item , from Latin item, thus, also.
Stem *i‑ plus locatival particle *-dha-i. ibidem , from Latin ibīdem, in the same place.
Suffixed variant form *e-tero‑ in compound *ke-e-tero‑ (see ko- ).

||[Pokorny 3. e‑ 281.]

r195_ ‌ ‌ kā-
To like, desire. Oldest form *keh₂‑, colored to *kah₂‑, becoming *kā‑.

Suffixed form *kā-ro‑.
1. 1. whore , from Old English hōre;
  2. whoredom , from Old Norse compound hōrdōmr (-dōmr,"condition"; see dhē- ). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hōraz (feminine *hōrōn‑), "one who desires," adulterer.
2. caress , charity , cherish ; Mother Carey's chicken , from Latin cārus, dear.
Suffixed form *kā-mo‑. Kama ¹; Kamasutra , from Sanksrit kāmaḥ, love, desire.

||[Pokorny kā‑ 515.]

r196_ ‌ ‌ kad-
To fall. Oldest form *k̑ad‑, becoming *kad‑ in centum languages.

: cadaver , cadence , cadent , caducous , cascade , case ¹, casual , casualty , casuist , chance , chute ; accident , decay , deciduous , escheat , incident , occasion , occident , recidivism , from Latin cadere, to fall, die.

||[Pokorny 1. k̑ad‑ 516.]

r197_ ‌ ‌ kaə-id-
To strike. Oldest form *keh₂-id‑, colored to *kah₂-id‑.

caesura , cement , cestus ², chisel , -cide , scissor ; abscise , circumcise , concise , decide , excise ², incise , precise , from Latin caedere, to cut, strike.
Caelum , ceil , sallet , from Latin caelum (? < *caedum), sculptor's chisel.

||[Pokorny (s)k(h)ai‑ 917.]

r198_ ‌ ‌ kai-
Heat. Extended form *kaid‑.

hot , from Old English hāt, hot, from Germanic *haitaz;
heat , from Old English hǣtu, from Germanic *haitī‑.

||[Pokorny kā̆i‑ 519.]

r199_ ‌ ‌ kailo-
Whole, uninjured, of good omen.

1. hale ¹, whole , from Old English hāl, hale, whole;
2. wholesome , from Old English *hālsum (> Middle English holsom), wholesome;
3. hail ²; wassail , from Old Norse heill, healthy. a-c all from Germanic *hailaz.
health , from Old English hǣlth, health, from Germanic *hailithō.
heal , from Old English hǣlan, to heal, from Germanic *hailjan.
1. holy ; halibut , halidom , holiday , hollyhock , from Old English hālig, holy, sacred;
2. hallow ; Allhallowmas , Halloween , from Old English hālgian, to consecrate, bless, from Germanic derivative verb *hailagōn. Both a and b from Germanic *hailagaz.

||[Pokorny kai-lo‑ 520.]

r200_ ‌ ‌ kaito-
Forest, uncultivated land.

heath , from Old English hǣth, heath, untilled land, from Germanic *haithiz.
1. heathen , from Old English hǣthen, heathen, "savage" (< "one inhabiting uncultivated land");
2. hoyden , from Middle Dutch heiden, heathen. Both a and b from Germanic *haithinaz.

||[Pokorny kaito‑ 521.]

r201_ ‌ ‌ kakka-
Also kaka-.
To defecate. Root imitative of glottal closure during defecation.

cucking stool , from Middle English cukken, to defecate, from a source akin to Old Norse *kūka, to defecate.
poppycock , from Latin cacāre, to defecate.
caco- ; cacodyl , cacoëthes , cacophonous , cacophony , from Greek kakos, bad.

||[Pokorny kakka‑ 521.]

r202_ ‌ ‌ kan-
To sing.

hen , from Old English hen(n), hen, from Germanic *han(e)nī.
1. canorous , cant ², cantabile , cantata , canticle , cantillate , canto , cantor , canzone , chant , chanteuse , chantey , chantry ; accent , chanticleer , descant , enchant , incantation , incentive , precentor , recant , from Latin canere, to sing (> cantāre, to sing, frequentative of canere);
2. suffixed form *kan-ā‑, "singer," in Latin compound *bou-kanā (see g^wou- ).
oscine , from Latin oscen, a singing bird used in divination (< *obs-cen, "one that sings before the augurs"; ob‑, before; see epi ).
Suffixed form *kan-men‑. charm , from Latin carmen, song, poem.

||[Pokorny kan‑ 525.]

r203_ ‌ ‌ kand-
Also kend-.
To shine.

Suffixed (stative) form *kand-ē‑. candelabrum , candelilla , candent , candescence , candid , candida , candidate , candle , candor ; incandesce , from Latin candēre to shine.
incendiary , incense ¹, incense ²; frankincense , from Latin compound incendere, to set fire to, kindle (in‑, in; see en ), from transitive *candere, to kindle.

||[Pokorny kand‑ 526.]

r204_ ‌ ‌ kap-
To grasp.
Derivatives include have , heavy , cable , captive , deceive , capsule , and chassis.

Basic form *kap‑.
1. heddle , from Old English hefeld, thread used for weaving, heddle (a device which grasps the thread), from Germanic *haf‑.
2. haft , from Old English hæft, handle, from Germanic *haftjam.
3. Form *kap-o‑. have ; behave , from Old English habban, to have, hold, from Germanic *habai‑, *habēn.
4. heavy , from Old English hefig, heavy, from Germanic *hafigaz, "containing something," having weight.
5. haven , from Old English hæfen, a haven, from Germanic *hafnō‑, perhaps "place that holds ships.".
6. hawk ¹, from Old English h(e)afoc, hawk, from Germanic *habukaz.
7. Suffixed form *kap-to‑. echt , from Middle Low German echte, true, legitimate, akin to Old High German ēohaft, according to custom, from ēwa, custom, right (see aiw-) + -haft, having (a characteristic; < "possessed by, seized by"), from -haft, caught, captured, from Germanic *haftam.
8. Latin combining form -ceps (< *kap-s), "taker" (see g^wher- , man- ², per ¹).
9. Probably from this root is Germanic *gaf‑, the source of Provençal gafar, to seize gaff ¹.
Suffixed form *kap-yo‑.
1. heave , heft , from Old English hebban, to lift, from Germanic *hafjan.
2. cable , cacciatore , caitiff , capable , capacious , capias , capstan , caption , captious , captivate , captive , captor , capture , catch , cater , chase ¹, cop ², copper ²; accept , anticipate , catchpole , conceive , deceive , except , inception , incipient , intercept , intussusception , municipal , nuncupative , occupy , participate , perceive , precept , receive , recipe , recover , recuperate , susceptible , from Latin capere, to take, seize, catch.
Lengthened-grade variant form *kōp‑.
1. 1. behoof , from Old English behōf, use, profit, need;
  2. behoove , from Old English behōfian, to have need of. Both a and b from Germanic compound *bi-hōf, "that which binds," requirement, obligation (*bi‑, intensive prefix; see ambhi ), from *hōf‑.
2. copepod , from Greek kōpē, oar, handle.

||[Pokorny kap‑ 527.]
Compare ghabh- .

r205_ ‌ ‌ kaput-
Head.

1. head ; behead , forehead , from Old English hēafod, head;
2. hetman , from Old High German houbit, head. Both a and b from Germanic *haubudam, *haubidam.
bacalao , caddie , cadet , cape ², capital ¹, capital ², capitate , capitation , capitellum , capitulate , capitulum , capo ¹, capo ², caprice , captain , cattle , caudillo , chapiter , chapter , chef , chief , chieftain , corporal ²; achieve , biceps , decapitate , kerchief , mischief , occiput , precipitate , recapitulate , sinciput , triceps , from Latin caput, head.

||[Pokorny kap-ut‑ 529.]

r206_ ‌ ‌ kar-
Also ker-.
Hard.
Derivatives include hard , and cancer.

Variant form *ker‑.
1. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-tu‑.
  1. hard , hardly , from Old English hard, heard, hard;
  2. -ard , from Germanic *-hart, *-hard, bold, hardy;
  3. standard , from Old French estandard, flag marking a rallying place in battle, from Frankish *hard, hard;
  4. hardy ¹, from Old French hardir, to make hard. a-d all from Germanic *harduz.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *kr̥t-es‑, from earlier full-grade form *kret-es‑. -cracy , from Greek kratos, strength, might, power.
Possible basic form *kar‑ in derivatives referring to things with hard shells.
1. Possibly Latin carīna, keel of a ship, nutshell careen , carina .
2. Possibly Greek karuon, nut karyo- ; eucaryote , gillyflower , synkaryon .
3. Reduplicated form *kar-kr-o‑. cancer , canker , carangid , chancre , from dissimilated Latin cancer, crab, cancer, constellation Cancer.
4. Suffixed form *kar-k-ino‑. carcino- , carcinoma , from Greek karkinos, cancer, crab.

||[Pokorny 3. kar‑ 531.]

r207_ ‌ ‌ kas-
Gray. Oldest form *k̑as‑, becoming *kas‑ in centum languages.

1. hare , from Old English hara, hare;
2. hasenpfeffer , from Old High German haso, rabbit. Both a and b from Germanic *hazōn‑, *hasōn‑.
Suffixed form *kas-no‑. canescent , from Latin cānus, white, gray, grayed hair.

||[Pokorny k̑as‑ 533.]

r208_ ‌ ‌ kat-
Down.

Possibly Greek kata, down cata- .
Suffixed form *kat-olo‑. cadelle , from Latin catulus, young puppy, young of animals ("dropped").

||[Pokorny 2. kat‑ 534.]

r209_ ‌ ‌ kau-
To hew, strike.

1. hew , from Old English hēawan, to hew;
2. haggis , haggle ; hacksaw , from Old Norse höggva, to cut;
3. hoe , from Old French houe, a hoe. a-c all from Germanic *hawwan.
hag ², from a source akin to Old Norse högg, a gap, a cutting blow, from Germanic *hawwō.
hay , from Old English hīeg, hay, cut grass, from Germanic *haujam.
Suffixed form *kau-do‑. incus , from Latin cūdere (< *caudere), to strike, beat.

||[Pokorny kāu‑ 535.]

r210_ ‌ ‌ ked-
To go, yield.

Lengthened-grade form *kēd‑. cease , cede , cession ; abscess , accede , access , ancestor , antecede , concede , decease , exceed , incessant , intercede , precede , predecessor , proceed , recede , retrocede , secede , succeed , from Latin cēdere, to go, withdraw, yield.
Prefixed and suffixed form *ne-ked-ti‑, "(there is) no drawing back" (*ne‑, not; see ne ). necessary , from Latin necesse, inevitable, unavoidable.

|| ||[Pokorny sed‑ 884.]

r211_ ‌ ‌ keg-
Hook, tooth.

1. hake , from Old English haca, hook, akin to Old Norse haki, hook;
2. harquebus , from Middle Dutch hake, hook. Both a and b from Germanic *hakan‑.
1. hook , from Old English hōc, hook;
2. hooker ¹, from Middle Dutch hōk, hoec, hook;
3. haček ; Hakenkreuz , from Old High German hāko, hook. a-c all from Germanic lengthened form *hōka‑.
hatchel , heckle , from Middle Dutch hekel, hatchel, a flax comb with long metal hooklike teeth, from Germanic *hakila‑.
hack ¹, from Old English -haccian, to hack to pieces as with a hooked instrument, from Germanic *hakkijan.

||[Pokorny keg‑ 537.]

r212_ ‌ ‌ kei-¹
To lie; bed, couch; beloved, dear. Oldest form *k̑ei‑, becoming *kei‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include city , and cemetery.

Basic form *kei‑.
1. Suffixed form *kei-wo‑.
  1. hind ³, from Old English hīwan, members of a household, from Germanic *hīwa‑;
  2. hide ³, from Old English hīgid, hīd, a measure of land (< "household"), from suffixed Germanic form *hīwidō.
2. Suffixed form *kei-wi‑. city , civic , civil , from Latin cīvis, citizen (< "member of a household").
3. Suffixed form *kei-liyo‑. ceilidh , from Old Irish céle, companion.
O-grade form *koi‑.
1. Suffixed form *koi-nā‑. incunabulum , from Latin cūnae, a cradle.
2. Suffixed form *koi-m-ā‑. cemetery , from Greek koimān, to put to sleep.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ki-wo‑. Shiva , from Sanskrit śiva‑, auspicious, dear.

||[Pokorny 1. k̑ei‑ 539.]

r213_ ‌ ‌ keiə-
To set in motion. Oldest form keih₂‑.
Derivatives include resuscitate , and kinetic.

Possibly extended variant o-grade from *koid‑in Germanic *hait‑, to call, summon (but this may be from a separate root *kaid‑).
1. hight , from Old English hātan, to call, summon, order, from Germanic *haitan.
2. Suffixed form *koid-ti‑.
  1. hest , from Old English hǣs, a command, bidding;
  2. behest , from Old English compound behǣs, a vow, promise, command (be‑, intensive prefix; see ambhi ). Both a and b from Germanic *haissiz, from *hait-ti‑.
Zero-grade form *ki‑.
1. Suffixed iterative form *kiə-eyo‑. cite ; excite , incite , oscitancy , resuscitate , solicitous , from Latin ciēre (past participle citus), with its frequentative citāre, to set in motion, summon.
2. Suffixed form *kiə-neu‑. kinematics , kinesics , -kinesis , kinetic ; bradykinin , cinematograph , hyperkinesia , kinesiology , kinesthesia , telekinesis , from Greek kīnein, to move.

||[Pokorny kēi‑ 538.]

r214_ ‌ ‌ kek^w-
Excrement. Oldest form *k̑ek^w‑, becoming *kek^w‑ in centum languages. Suffixed o-grade form *kok^w-ro‑.

: copro- , from Greek kopros, dung.

||[Pokorny k̑ek^u̯‑ 544.]

r215_ ‌ ‌ kel-¹
To cover, conceal, save. Oldest form *k̑el‑, becoming *kel‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include hell , hole , holster , apocalypse , and eucalyptus.

O-grade form *kol‑.
1. 1. hell , from Old English hell;
  2. Hel , from Old Norse Hel, the underworld, goddess of death. Both a and b from Germanic *haljō, the underworld (< "concealed place").
2. 1. hall , from Old English heall, hall;
  2. Valhalla , from Old Norse höll, hall. Both a and b from Germanic *hallō, covered place, hall.
3. Suffixed form *kol-eyo‑. coleus ; coleopteran , coleoptile , coleorhiza , from Greek koleon, koleos, sheath.
Zero-grade form *kl̥‑.
1. 1. hold ², hull , from Old English hulu, husk, pod (< "that which covers");
  2. hole , from Old English hol, a hollow;
  3. hollow , from Old English holh, hole, hollow;
  4. haugh , from Old English healh, secret place, small hollow. a-d all from Germanic *hul‑.
2. 1. holster , from Old High German hulft, covering;
  2. housing ², from Medieval Latin hultia, protective covering. Both a and b from suffixed Germanic form *hulftī‑.
3. Extended form *kl̥ə‑ becoming *klā‑. clandestine , from Latin clam, in secret.
4. Suffixed variant form *kal-up-yo‑. Calypso ¹, calyptra ; apocalypse , eucalyptus , from Greek kaluptein, to cover, conceal.
Full-grade form *kel‑.
1. 1. helm ², from Old English helm, protection, covering;
  2. helmet , from Middle English helmet, helmet, from a source akin to Frankish *helm, helmet. Both a and b from Germanic *helmaz, "protective covering.".
2. occult , from Latin occulere < *ob-kel‑ (past participle occultus), to cover over (ob‑, over; see epi ).
3. Suffixed form *kel-os‑. color , from Latin color, color, hue (< "that which covers").
4. Suffixed form *kel-nā‑. cell , cella , cellar , cellarer ; rathskeller , from Latin cella, storeroom, chamber.
5. Suffixed form *kel-yo‑. cilium , seel ; supercilious , supercilium , from Latin cilium, lower eyelid.
Lengthened-grade form *kēl‑. conceal , from Latin cēlāre, to hide, from suffixed form *kēl-ā‑.

||[Pokorny 4. k̑el‑ 553.]

r216_ ‌ ‌ kel-²
To be prominent; hill.

Zero-grade form *kl̥‑.
1. hill , from Old English hyll, hill, from suffixed Germanic form *hul-ni‑;
2. holm , from Old Norse hōlmr, islet in a bay, meadow, from suffixed Germanic form *hul-ma‑.
Suffixed form *kel-d‑. excel , from Latin excellere, to raise up, elevate, also to be eminent (ex‑, up out of; see eghs ).
O-grade form *kol‑.
1. colophon , from Greek kolophōn, summit;
2. suffixed form *kol(u)men‑. culminate , from Latin culmen, top, summit;
3. extended and suffixed form *kolumnā‑. colonel , colonnade , colonnette , column , from Latin columna, a projecting object, column.

||[Pokorny 1. kel‑ 544.]

r217_ ‌ ‌ kelə-¹
Warm. Oldest form *k̑elh₁‑, with metathesized variant *k̑leh₁‑, becoming *k̑lē‑ in satem languages and *klē‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed variant form *klē-wo‑.
1. lee , from Old English hlēo, hlēow, covering, protection (as from cold);
2. lukewarm , from Old English -hlēow, warm. Both a and b from Germanic *hlēwaz.
Suffixed zero-grade form *kl̥ə-ē‑.
1. calenture , chafe , chauffeur , cholent ; decalescence , incalescent , nonchalant , recalescence , réchauffé , from Latin calēre, to be warm;
2. cauldron , caudle , chowder ; scald ¹, from Latin derivative adjective calidus, warm.
Suffixed zero-grade form *kl̥ə-os‑. caloric , calorie ; caloreceptor , calorific , calorimeter , calorimetry , from Latin calor, heat.

||[Pokorny 1. k̑el‑ 551.]

r218_ ‌ ‌ kelə-²
To shout. Oldest form *kelh₂‑, with metathesized variant *kleh₂‑, colored to *klah₂‑, becoming *klā‑.
Derivatives include exclaim , haul , calendar , and class.

Variant form *klā‑ (< *klaə‑).
1. low ², from Old English hlōwan, to roar, low, from Germanic *hlō‑.
2. Suffixed form *klā-mā‑. claim , clamant , clamor ; acclaim , declaim , exclaim , proclaim , reclaim , from Latin clāmāre, to call, cry out.
O-grade form *kolə‑.
1. keelhaul , from Middle Dutch halen, to haul, pull (? < "to call together, summon");
2. hale ², haul ; halyard , from Old French haler, to haul. Both a and b from Germanic *halōn, to call.
Zero-grade form *kl̥ə‑ (> *kal‑).
1. Suffixed form *kal-yo‑. conciliate , council ; reconcile , from Latin concilium, a meeting, gathering (< "a calling together"; con‑, together; see kom ).
2. Suffixed form *kal-end‑. calendar , calends , from Latin kalendae, the calends, the first day of the month, when it was publicly announced on which days the nones and ides of that month would fall.
3. Suffixed form *kal-e‑. ecclesia , Paraclete , from Greek kalein (variant klē‑), to call.
4. Suffixed form *kal-ā‑. intercalate , nomenclator , from Latin calāre, to call, call out.
5. Suffixed form *kl̥ə-ro‑ or suffixed variant form *klaə-ro‑ contracted to *klā-ro‑. clear , glair ; Aufklärung , chiaroscuro , clairvoyant , clarain , declare , éclair , from Latin clārus, bright, clear.
Possibly extended zero-grade form *kl̥d‑, becoming *klad‑ in suffixed form *klad-ti‑. class , from Latin classis, summons, division of citizens for military draft, hence army, fleet, also class in general.

||[Pokorny 6. kel‑ 548.]

r219_ ‌ ‌ ken-
Fresh, new, young.

Suffixed form *ken-t‑. recent , from Latin recēns, young, fresh, new (re‑, again; see re- ).
Suffixed zero-grade form *kn̥-yo‑. -cene ; cainotophobia , Cenozoic , kainite , from Greek kainos, new, fresh.

||[Pokorny 3. ken‑ 563.]

r220_ ‌ ‌ kenk-
To gird, bind. Variant form *keng‑.

: cinch , cincture , cingulum ; enceinte ², precinct , shingles , succinct , from Latin cingere, to gird.

||[Pokorny 1. kenk‑ 565.]

r221_ ‌ ‌ kens-
To proclaim, speak solemnly. Oldest form *k̑ens‑, becoming *kens‑ in centum languages. Suffixed form *kens-ē‑.

: censor , census ; recension , from Latin cēnsēre, to judge, assess, estimate, tax.

||[Pokorny k̑ens‑ 566.]

r222_ ‌ ‌ kent-
To prick, jab.

center ; amniocentesis , dicentra , eccentric , from Greek kentein, to prick.
Suffixed form *kent-to‑. cestus ¹, from Greek kestos, belt, girdle.
Suffixed o-grade form *kont-o‑. heterokont , from Greek kontos, punting pole, goad.

||[Pokorny k̑ent‑ 567.]

r223_ ‌ ‌ ker-¹
Horn, head; with derivatives referring to horned animals, horn-shaped objects, and projecting parts. Oldest form *k̑er‑, becoming *ker‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include horn , unicorn , hornet , reindeer , migraine , cheer , rhinoceros , and cerebrum.

Zero-grade form *kr̥‑. Suffixed form *kr̥-no‑.
1. 1. horn , hornbeam , from Old English horn, horn;
  2. alpenhorn , althorn , flugelhorn , hornblende , from Old High German horn, horn. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hurnaz.
Extended o-grade form *koru‑.
1. corymb , from Greek korumbos, uppermost point (< "head").
2. coryphaeus , from Greek koruphē, head.
3. Suffixed form *koru-do‑. corydalis , from Greek korudos, crested lark.
4. Suffixed form *koru-nā‑. corynebacterium , from Greek korunē, club, mace.
Extended e-grade form *keru‑.
1. Suffixed form *kerw-o‑, "having horns."
  1. cervid , cervine , serval , from Latin cervus, deer;
  2. cervix , from Latin cervīx, neck.
2. Suffixed form *keru-do‑.
  1. hart , from Old English heorot, hart, stag;
  2. hartebeest , from Middle Dutch hert, deer, hart. Both a and b from Germanic *herutaz.
Italic and Celtic blend of (I) *kr̥-no‑ and (II) *koru‑ yielding *kor-nu‑. corn ², cornea , corneous , corner , cornet , cornichon , corniculate , cornu ; bicornuate , Capricorn , cornification , lamellicorn , longicorn , tricorn , unicorn , from Latin cornū, horn.
Extended zero-grade form *kr̥ə‑.
1. charivari ; cheer , from Greek karē, karā, head.
2. carotid , from Greek karoun, to stupefy, be stupefied (< "to feel heavy-headed").
3. carrot , carotene , from Greek karōton, carrot (from its hornlike shape).
Suffixed further extended form *kr̥əs-no‑.
1. cranium ; migraine , olecranon , from Greek krānion, skull, upper part of the head.
2. hornet , from Old English hyrnet, hornet, from Germanic *hurznuta‑.
E-grade further extended form *kerəs‑.
1. carat , cerambycid , cerastes , kerato- ; ceratopsian , chelicera , cladoceran , keratin , Monoceros , rhinoceros , triceratops , from Greek keras, horn.
2. sirdar , from Persian sar, head.
3. Suffixed form *kerəs-ro. cerebellum , cerebrum , saveloy , from Latin cerebrum, brain.
Extended form *krei‑.
1. reindeer , from Old Norse hreinn, reindeer, from Germanic *hraina‑.
2. rinderpest , from Old High German hrind, ox, from Germanic *hrinda‑.
3. Possibly extended form *krī‑. criosphinx , from Greek krīos, ram.

||[Pokorny 1. k̑er‑ 574.]

r224_ ‌ ‌ ker-²
To grow. Oldest form *k̑er‑, becoming *ker‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include cereal , Creole , concrete , and recruit.

Suffixed form *ker-es‑. cereal , Ceres , from Latin Cerēs, goddess of agriculture, especially the growth of grain.
Extended form *krē‑ (< *kreə‑).
1. Suffixed form *krē-yā‑. create , Creole , cria , griot ; procreate , from Latin creāre, to bring forth, create, produce (< "to cause to grow);
2. suffixed form *krē-sko‑. crescendo , crescent , crew ¹; accrue , concrescence , concrete , decrease , excrescence , increase , recruit , from Latin crēscere, to grow, increase.
Suffixed o-grade form *kor-wo‑, "growing," adolescent. kore , kouros ; Dioscuri , hypocorism , from Greek kouros, koros, boy, son, and korē, girl.
Compound *sm̥-kēro‑, "of one growth" (*sm̥‑, same, one; see sem- ¹). sincere , from Latin sincērus, pure, clean.

||[Pokorny 2. k̑er‑ 577.]

r225_ ‌ ‌ ker-³
Heat, fire.

Suffixed form *ker-tā‑. hearth , from Old English heorth, hearth, from Germanic *herthō.
Zero-grade form *kr̥‑.
1. carbon , carbuncle , from Latin carbō, charcoal, ember;
2. extended form *krem‑. cremate , from Latin cremāre, to burn.
Possibly suffixed and extended form *kerə-mo‑. ceramic , from Greek keramos, potter's clay, earthenware.
Possibly variant extended form *krās‑. crash ², from Russian krasit', to color.

||[Pokorny 3. ker(ə)‑ 571.]

r226_ ‌ ‌ kerd-
Heart. Oldest form *k̑erd‑, becoming *kerd‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *kerd-en‑. heart , from Old English heorte, heart, from Germanic *hertōn‑.
Zero-grade form *kr̥d‑.
1. cordate , cordial , courage , quarry ¹; accord , concord , cordiform , discord , misericord , record , from Latin cor (stem cord‑), heart;
2. suffixed form *kr̥d-yā‑. cardia , cardiac , cardio- ; endocardium , epicardium , megalocardia , myocardium , pericardium , from Greek kardiā, heart, stomach, orifice.
Possibly *kred-dhə‑, "to place trust" (an old religious term; *dhə‑, to do, place; see dhē- ) credence , credible , credit , credo , credulous , grant ; miscreant , recreant , from Latin crēdere, to believe.

||[Pokorny (k̑ered‑) 579.]

r227_ ‌ ‌ kerə-
To mix, confuse, cook. Oldest form *k̑erh₂‑, becoming *kerh₂‑ in centum languages.

Variant form *krā‑ (< *kraə‑).
1. uproar , from Middle Low German rōr, motion, from Germanic *hrōr‑;
2. rare ², from Old English hrēr, lightly boiled, half-cooked, possibly from Germanic *hrōr‑ (see a).
Zero-grade form *kr̥ə‑.
1. Suffixed form *kr̥ə-ti‑. idiosyncrasy ; dyscrasia , from Greek krāsis, a mixing;
2. suffixed form *kr̥ə-ter‑. crater , krater , from Greek krātēr, mixing vessel.

||[Pokorny k̑erə‑ 582.]

r228_ ‌ ‌ kerp-
To gather, pluck, harvest. Variant *karp‑.

harvest , from Old English hærfest, harvest, from Germanic *harbistaz.
carpet ; excerpt , scarce , from Latin carpere, to pluck.
-carp , carpel , carpo- , -carpous , from Greek karpos, fruit.

|| ||[Pokorny 4. sker‑ 938.]

r229_ ‌ ‌ kers-
To run. Oldest form *k̑ers‑, becoming *kers‑ in centum languages. Zero-grade form *kr̥s‑.

corral , corrida , corrido , corridor , corsair , courante , courier , course , current , cursive , cursor , curule ; concourse , concur , decurrent , discourse , excursion , hussar , incur , intercourse , kraal , occur , parkour , percurrent , precursor , recourse , recur , succor , from Latin currere, to run.
Suffixed form *kr̥s-o‑.
1. car , career , cargo , caricature , cariole , cark , caroche , carry , charge , chariot , charrette ; discharge , from Latin carrus, a two-wheeled wagon;
2. carpenter , from Latin carpentum, a two-wheeled carriage. Both a and b from Gaulish carros, a wagon, cart.

||[Pokorny 2. k̑ers‑ 583.]

r230_ ‌ ‌ kes-
To cut. Oldest form *k̑es‑, becoming *kes‑ in centum languages. Variant *kas‑.

Suffixed form *kas-tro‑.
1. castrate , from Latin castrāre, to castrate;
2. alcazar , castellan , castellated , castle , from Latin castrum, fortified place, camp (perhaps "separated place").
Suffixed form *kas-to‑. caste , chaste ; castigate , incest , from Latin castus, chaste, pure (< "cut off from or free of faults").
Suffixed (stative) form *kas-ē‑. caret , from Latin carēre, "to be cut off from," lack.
Extended geminated form *kasso‑. cashier , quash ¹, cassation , from Latin cassus, empty, void.

||[Pokorny k̑es‑ 586.]

r231_ ‌ ‌ keuə-
To swell; vault, hole. Oldest form *k̑euh_x‑, becoming *keuh_x‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include cave , excavate , and church.

O-grade form *kouə‑.
1. Basic form *kouə‑ becoming *kaw‑. cava , cave , cavern , cavetto , cavity ; concave , excavate , from Latin cavus, hollow.
2. Suffixed form *kow-ilo‑. -cele ², celiac , -coel , coelom ; acoelomate , coelacanth , from Greek koilos, hollow.
3. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *kōw-o‑. codeine , from Greek kōos, hollow place, cavity.
Zero-grade form *kū‑ (< *kuə‑).
1. Suffixed shortened form *ku-m-olo. cumulate , cumulus ; accumulate , from Latin cumulus, heap, mass.
2. Basic form *kū‑.
  1. Suffixed form *kū-ro‑, "swollen," strong, powerful. church , kirk , Kyrie ; kermis , from Greek kūrios (vocative kūrie), master, lord;
  2. suffixed form *kuw-eyo‑. cyma , cymatium , cyme ; cymophane , kymograph , pseudocyesis , from Greek kuein, to swell, and derivative kūma (< *kū-mn̥), "a swelling," wave;
  3. suffixed form *en-kū-yo‑ (*en, in; see en ). enceinte ¹, from Latin inciēns, pregnant.

||[Pokorny 1. k̑eu‑ 592.]

r232_ ‌ ‌ klei-
To lean. Oldest form *k̑lei‑, becoming *klei‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include decline , climax , climate , and ladder.

Full-grade form *klei‑.
1. Suffixed form *klei-n‑. decline , incline , recline , from Latin -clīnāre, to lean, bend.
2. Suffixed form *klei-tro‑. clitellum , from Latin clītellae, packsaddle, from diminutive of *clītra, litter.
3. Suffixed form *klei-wo‑. acclivity , declivity , proclivity , from Latin clīvus, a slope.
4. Suffixed form *klei-tor‑, "incline, hill." clitoris , from Greek diminutive kleitoris, clitoris.
Zero grade form *kli‑.
1. lid , from Old English hlid, cover, from Germanic *hlid‑, "that which bends over," cover.
2. Suffixed form *kli-n‑. lean ¹, from Old English hlinian and hleonian, to lean, from Germanic *hlinēn.
3. Suffixed form *kli-ent‑. client , from Latin cliēns, dependent, follower.
4. Suffixed form *kli-to‑ in compound *aus-klit-ā‑ (see ous- ).
5. Suffixed form *kli-n-yo‑. -clinal , cline , -cline , -clinic , clino- , clisis , klismos ; aclinic line , anaclisis , clinandrium , enclitic , matriclinous , patroclinous , pericline , proclitic , from Greek klīnein, to lean.
6. Suffixed form *kli-mn̥. climate , from Greek klima, sloping surface of the earth.
7. Lengthened zero-grade form *klī‑, with lengthening of obscure origin.
  1. Suffixed form *klī-n-ā‑. clinic ; diclinous , monoclinous , triclinium , from Greek klīnē, bed;
  2. suffixed form *klī-m‑. climax , from Greek klīmax, ladder.
Suffixed o-grade form *kloi-tr‑. ladder , from Old English hlǣd(d)er, ladder, from Germanic *hlaidri‑.

||[Pokorny k̑lei‑ 600.]

r233_ ‌ ‌ kleu-
To hear. Oldest form *k̑leu‑, becoming *kleu‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include leer , loud , and Hercules.

Extended form *kleus‑. leer , from Old English hlēor, cheek (< "side of the face" < "ear"), from Germanic *hleuza‑.
Zero-grade form *klu‑.
1. list ⁴, from Old English hlystan, to listen, from Germanic *hlustjan.
2. listen , from Old English hlysnan, to listen, from Germanic *hlusinōn.
3. Suffixed lengthened form *klū-to‑.
  1. loud , from Old English hlūd, loud;
  2. ablaut , umlaut , from Old High German hlūt, sound. Both a and b from Germanic *hlūdaz, "heard," loud.
Full-grade form *kleu‑.
1. Suffixed form *klew-yo‑. Clio , from Greek kleiein, to praise, tell.
2. Suffixed form *klew-es‑, "fame." Hercules , from Latin Herculēs, from Greek Hēraklēs, Hērakleēs.
3. Suffixed form *kleu-to‑. sarod , from Middle Persian srōd, sarod, akin to Avestan sraota‑, hearing, sound, from Iranian *srauta‑.

||[Pokorny 1. k̑leu‑ 605.]

r234_ ‌ ‌ ko-
Stem of demonstrative pronoun meaning "this. " Oldest form *k̑o‑, becoming *ko‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include he ¹, et cetera , and behind.

Variant form *ki‑.
1. 1. he ¹, from Old English hē, he;
  2. him , from Old English him, him (dative of hē);
  3. his , from Old English his, his (genitive of hē);
  4. her , from Old English hire, her (dative and genitive of heo, she);
  5. it , from Old English hit, it (neuter of hē);
  6. here , from Old English hēr, here;
  7. hence , from Old English heonane, heonon, from here
  8. harass , from Old French hare, call used to set dogs on, from Frankish *hara, over here, hither, alteration (perhaps influenced by *dara, thither) of earlier *hera (compare Old High German *hera, hither). a-h all from Germanic *hi‑.
2. Suffixed form *ki-tro‑. hither , from Old English hider, hither, from Germanic *hi-thra‑.
3. Suffixed form *ki-s. cis- , from Latin cis, on this side of.
Variant form *ke‑.
1. Preposed in *ke-etero‑ (*e-tero‑, a second time, again; see i- ). et cetera , from Latin cēterus (neuter plural cētera), the other part, that which remains.
2. Postposed in Latin -ce (see nu- ).
1. behind , hind ¹, from Old English behindan, in the rear, behind (bi, at; see ambhi ).
2. hinterland , from Old High German hintar, behind.
3. hinder ¹, hindrance , from Old English hindrian, to check, hinder, from Germanic derivative verb *hindrōn, to keep back. 1-3 all from Germanic root *hind‑, behind, attributed by some to this root (but more likely of obscure origin).

||[Pokorny 1. ko‑ 609.]

r235_ ‌ ‌ kō-
To sharpen, whet. Oldest form *k̑eə₃‑, colored to *k̑oə₃‑, contracted to *k̑ō‑ (becoming *kō‑ in centum languages).

Suffixed extended form *koəi-no‑. hone ¹, from Old English hān, stone, from Germanic *hainō.
Possibly Greek kōnos, cone, conical object (< "a sharp-pointed object") cone , conic ; conifer , conodont .

||[Pokorny k̑ē(i)‑ 541.]

r236_ ‌ ‌ kob-
To suit, fit, succeed.

: hap , happen , happy ; hapless , mishap , from Old Norse happ, chance, good luck, from Germanic *hap‑.

||[Pokorny kob‑ 610.]

r237_ ‌ ‌ kom
Beside, near, by, with.
Derivatives include enough , handiwork , and country.

1. enough , gemot , handiwork , witenagemot , yclept , yean , from Old English ge‑, with, also participial, collective, and intensive prefix;
2. gemütlich ; gebrauchsmusik , from Old High German gi‑, participial, collective, and intensive prefix. Both a and b from Germanic *ga‑, together, with (collective and intensive prefix and marker of the past participle).
cum ¹; cooncan , from Latin cum, co‑, with.
co- , com- , from Archaic Latin com, with (collective and intensive prefix).
British Celtic *kom‑, collective prefix, in compound *kombrogos (see merg- ).
Suffixed form *kom-trā‑. con ¹, contra- , contrary , counter ¹, counter- , country ; encounter , from Latin contrā, against, opposite.
Suffixed form *kom-yo‑. coeno- ; cenobite , epicene , Koine , from Greek koinos, common, shared.
Reduced form *ko‑ in compounds (see gher- ¹, mei- ¹, smei- ).

||[Pokorny kom 612.]

r238_ ‌ ‌ konk-
To hang. Oldest form *k̑onk‑, becoming *konk‑ in centum languages.

1. hang , from Old English hōn, to hang;
2. hanker , from Dutch (dialectal) hankeren, to long for;
3. hinge , from Middle English henge, hinge, hinge, possibly related (ultimately from the base of Old English hangian, to hang). a-c all from Germanic *hanhan (transitive), hangēn (intransitive), hang.
Suffixed form *konk-it-ā‑. cunctation , from Latin cūnctārī, to delay.

||[Pokorny k̑enk‑ 566, k̑onk‑ 614.]

r239_ ‌ ‌ koro-
War; also war-band, host, army.

heriot , from Old English here, army.
arrière-ban , from Old French herban, a summoning to military service (ban, proclamation, summons; see bhā- ²).
1. harbor , from Old English herebeorg, lodging;
2. harbinger , from Old French herberge, lodging. Both a and b from Germanic compound *harja-bergaz, "army hill," hill-fort, later shelter, lodging, army quarters (*bergaz, hill; see bhergh- ²).
herald , from Anglo-Norman herald, from Germanic compound *harja-waldaz, "army commander" (*wald‑, rule, power; see wal- ).
harness , from Old French harneis, harness, from Germanic compound *harja-nestam, "army provisions" (*nestam, food for a journey; see nes- ¹).
harry , hurry , from Old English hergian, to ravage, plunder, raid, from Germanic denominative *harjōn.
harangue , from Old Italian aringo, arringa, public square, from Germanic compound *harihring, assembly, "host-ring" (*hringaz, ring; see sker- ²). 1-7 all from Germanic *harjaz, army.

||[Pokorny koro-s 615.]

r240_ ‌ ‌ kost-
Bone. Probably related to ost- .

: coast , costa , costard , costrel , cuesta , cutlet ; accost , intercostal , sternocostal , from Latin costa, rib, side.

||[Pokorny kost‑ 616.]

r241_ ‌ ‌ kous-
To hear. Oldest form *h₂kous‑.

1. hear , from Old English hīeran, to hear;
2. hearken , from Old English he(o)rcnian, to harken. Both a and b from Germanic *hauzjan.
Suffixed form *əkous-yo‑. acoustic , from Greek akouein, to hear.

||[Pokorny 1. keu‑ 587.]

r242_ ‌ ‌ krei-
To sieve, discriminate, distinguish.
Derivatives include garble , crime , certain , excrement , crisis , and hypocrisy.

Basic form with variant instrumental suffixes.
1. Suffixed form *krei-tro‑. riddle ¹, from Old English hridder, hriddel, sieve, from Germanic *hridra‑;
2. suffixed form *krei-dhro‑. cribriform , garble , from Latin crībrum, sieve.
Suffixed form *krei-men‑.
1. crime , criminal ; recriminate , from Latin crīmen, judgment, crime;
2. discriminate , from Latin discrīmen, distinction (dis‑, apart).
Suffixed zero-grade form *kri-no‑. certain ; ascertain , concern , concert , decree , discern , disconcert , discrete , excrement , excrete , incertitude , recrement , secern , secret , secretary , from Latin cernere (past participle crētus), to sift, separate, decide.
Suffixed zero-grade form *kri-n-yo‑. crisis , critic , criterion ; apocrine , diacritic , eccrine , endocrine , epicritic , exocrine , hematocrit , hypocrisy , paracrine , from Greek krīnein, to separate, decide, judge, and krīnesthai, to explain.

||[Pokorny 4. sker‑, Section II. 945.]

r243_ ‌ ‌ kreuə-
Raw flesh. Oldest form *kreuh₂‑.

Suffixed o-grade form *krowə-o‑. raw , from Old English hrēaw, raw, from Germanic *hrawaz.
Suffixed form *krewə-s‑. creatine , creodont , creosote , pancreas , from Greek kreas, flesh.
Suffixed zero-grade form *krū-do‑ (< *kruə-do‑).
1. crude ; ecru , recrudesce , from Latin crūdus, bloody, raw;
2. cruel , from Latin crūdēlis, cruel.

||[Pokorny 1. A. kreu‑ 621.]

r244_ ‌ ‌ kreus-
To begin to freeze, form a crust.

Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-to‑.
1. crouton , crust , crustacean , crustaceous , crustose ; encrust , from Latin crusta, crust;
2. crystal , crystalline , crystallo- ; Kristallnacht , from Greek krustallos, ice, crystal.
Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-es‑. cryo- , from Greek kruos, icy cold, frost.
Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-mo‑. crymotherapy , from Greek krūmos, icy cold, frost.

||[Pokorny 1. B. kreu‑ 621.]

r245_ ‌ ‌ ksun
Preposition and preverb meaning "with."

syn- , from Greek sun, xun, together, with.
Basic form *su(n)‑.
1. soviet , from Old Russian compound sŭvětŭ, assembly;
2. sputnik , from Russian so‑, s‑, with, together. a and b from Old Russian sŭ(n)‑, with, together.

|| ||[Pokorny 2. sem‑ 902.]

r246_ ‌ ‌ k^we
And (enclitic).

: sesqui- , ubiquity , from Latin -que, and.

||[Pokorny 1. k^u̯e 635.]

r247_ ‌ ‌ k^wei-¹
To pay, atone, compensate. Suffixed o-grade form *k^woi-nā‑.

: pain , penal , penalty , pine ², punish ; impunity , penology , punitory , repine , subpoena , from Greek poinē, fine, penalty.

||[Pokorny 1. k^u̯ei-(t‑) 636.]

r248_ ‌ ‌ k^wei-²
To pile up, build, make. O-grade form *k^woi‑.

cheetah , from Sanskrit kāyaḥ, body;
suffixed form *k^woi-wo‑, making, in denominative verb *k^woiw-eyo‑. poem , poesy , poet , poetic , -poiesis , -poietic ; epopee , mythopoeic , onomatopoeia , pharmacopoeia , from Greek poiein, to make, create.

||[Pokorny 2. k^u̯ei‑ 637.]

r249_ ‌ ‌ k^weiə-
Also k^wyeə-.
To rest, be quiet. Oldest forms *k^weih₁‑, *k^wyeh₁‑.
Derivatives include while , coy , and requiem.

Suffixed zero-grade form *k^wī-lo‑ (< *k^wiə-lo‑).
1. 1. while , from Old English hwīl, while;
  2. whilom , from Old English hwīlum, sometimes. Both a and b from Germanic *hwīlō.
2. Possibly Latin tranquillus, tranquil (trāns, across, beyond; see terə- ²). tranquil .
Variant form *k^wyē‑ (< *k^wyeə‑).
1. Suffixed form *k^wyē-t‑. requiem , from Latin quiēs, rest, quiet.
2. Suffixed form *k^wyē-ske‑. coy , quiet , quit ; acquiesce , acquit , quitclaim , quite , quitrent , requiescat , from Latin quiēscere (past participle quiētus), to rest.

||[Pokorny k^u̯eiə‑ 638.]

r250_ ‌ ‌ kweit-
Also kweid-.
White; to shine. Oldest form *k̑weit‑, becoming *kweit‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed variant form *kweid-o‑.
1. white ; Whitsunday , from Old English hwīt, white;
2. witloof , from Middle Dutch wit, white;
3. whiting ², from Middle Dutch wijting, whiting;
4. 1. edelweiss , from Old High German hwīz, wīz, white;
  2. bismuth , from obsolete German Bismuth, Wismuth, perhaps obscurely related to Old High German wīz, white. a-d all from Germanic *hwītaz.
Suffixed o-grade variant form *kwoid-yo‑. wheat , from Old English hwǣte, wheat (from the fine white flour it yields), from Germanic *hwaitjaz.

||[Pokorny 3. k̑u̯ei‑ 628.]

r251_ ‌ ‌ k^wel-¹
Also k^welə-.
To revolve, move around, sojourn, dwell. Oldest forms k^wel‑, k^welh₂‑.
Derivatives include colony , cult , wheel , cyclone , pulley , and bucolic.

Basic form *k^wel‑. colonia , colony , cult , cultivate , culture , Kultur ; incult , inquiline , silvicolous , from Latin colere, to till, cultivate, inhabit (< *k^wel-o‑).
Suffixed form *k^wel-es‑. telic , telium , telo- , telos ; entelechy , talisman , teleology , teleost , teleutospore , from Greek telos, "completion of a cycle," consummation, perfection, end, result.
Suffixed reduplicated form *k^w(e)-k^wl-o‑, circle.
1. wheel , from Old English hwēol, hweogol, wheel, from Germanic *hwewlaz.
2. cycle , cyclo- , cycloid , cyclone , cyclosis ; bicycle , encyclical , epicycle , from Greek kuklos, circle, wheel.
3. chakra , chakram , chukker , from Sanskrit cakram, circle, wheel.
4. Metathesized form *k^we-lk^w-o‑. charkha , from Old Persian *carka‑.
5. Probably ultimately from *k^w(e)-k^wl-o‑ is the Old Chinese word for "wheeled vehicle" (reflected by modern Mandarin chē), borrowed from an Indo-European language of Central Asia. jinriksha , from Middle Chinese t(SHOOKR)^hia, vehicle, from an Old Chinese word probably from or akin to Tocharian A kukäl and Tocharian B kokale, wagon.
O-grade form *k^wol‑.
1. Suffixed form *k^wol-so‑, "that on which the head turns," neck.
  1. 1. hawse , from Old Norse hāls, neck, ship's bow;
    2. ringhals , from Middle Dutch hals, neck;
    3. habergeon , hauberk , from Old French hauberc, hauberk, from Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg‑, "neck-protector," gorget (*bergan, to protect; see kom ¹). (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *h(w)alsaz.
  2. col , collar , collet , cullet ; accolade , decollate ¹, décolleté , machicolate , machicolation , torticollis , from Latin collum, neck.
2. Suffixed form *k^wol-ā‑. -colous ; pratincole , from Latin -cola and incola, inhabitant (in‑, in; see en ).
3. Suffixed form *k^wol-o‑.
  1. ancillary , from Latin anculus, "he who bustles about," servant (an‑, short for ambi‑, around, about; see ambhi );
  2. pole ¹, pulley , from Greek polos, axis of a sphere;
  3. bucolic , from Greek boukolos, cowherd, from -kolos, herdsman.
4. Suffixed form *k^wol-es‑ (probably a blend of o-grade *k^wol-o‑ and expected e-grade *k^wel-es‑) calash , kolacky , from Slavic kolo, koles‑, wheel.
5. Suffixed o-grade form *k^wol-eno‑ in Old Iranian compound *vahā-carana‑ (see wes- ³).
6. Suffixed zero-grade variant form *k^wl̥ə-i‑. palimpsest , palindrome , palingenesis , palinode , from Greek palin, again (< "revolving").

||[Pokorny 1. k^u̯el‑ 639.]

r252_ ‌ ‌ k^wel-²
Far (in space and time).

Lengthened-grade form *k^wēl‑. tele- ; hypertelorism , from Greek tēle, far off.
Suffixed zero-grade form *k^wl̥-ai. paleo- , from Greek palai, long ago.

||[Pokorny 2. k^u̯el‑ 640.]

r253_ ‌ ‌ kwen-
Holy. Oldest form *k̑wen‑, becoming *kwen‑ in centum languages.

: Suffixed zero-grade form *kwn̥-s-lo‑. housel , from Old English hūsl, hūsel, sacrifice, Eucharist, from Germanic *hunslam.

||[Pokorny *k̑u̯en‑ 630.]

r254_ ‌ ‌ k^went(h)-
To suffer.

Suffixed form *k^wenth-es‑. nepenthe , from Greek penthos, grief.
Zero-grade form *k^wn̥th‑. pathetic , pathic , patho- , pathos , -pathy ; apathy , pathognomonic , sympathy , from Greek pathos, suffering, passion, emotion, feelings.

||[Pokorny k^u̯enth‑ 641.]

r255_ ‌ ‌ k^wer-
To make.

namaskar , Prakrit , puggaree , Sanskrit , from Sanskrit karoti, he makes.
Suffixed form *k^wer-ōr with dissimilated form *k^wel-ōr. peloria , from Greek pelōr, monster (perhaps "that which does harm").
Suffixed form *k^wer-əs‑. tera- , terato- , from Greek teras, monster.
Suffixed form *k^wer-mn̥. karma , from Sanskrit karma, act, deed.
Suffixed form *k^wer-o‑. lascar , from Middle Persian laškar, army, perhaps from Old Iranian *raxša-kara‑ ("furnishing protection"; *raxša‑, protection).
Suffixed form *k^wr̥-tu‑. Cruithne , from Old Irish Cruithne, the Picts, from Cruithen, a Pict, from *k^writeno‑, member of a tribe inhabiting Britian, Pict, ultimately derived from *k^wr̥tu‑, shape, form (perhaps in reference to the designs the Picts tattooed or painted on their bodies).

||[Pokorny 1. k^u̯er‑ 641.]

r256_ ‌ ‌ kwes-
To pant, wheeze. Oldest form *k̑wes‑, becoming *kwes‑ in centum languages.

wheeze , from Old Norse hvæsa, to hiss, from Germanic *hwēsjan.
quarrel ¹, querulous , from Latin querī, to complain.
Suffixed zero-grade form *kus-ti‑. cyst , cysto- , from Greek kustis, bladder, bag (< "bellows").

||[Pokorny k̑u̯es‑ 631.]

r257_ ‌ ‌ kwēt-
To shake. Contracted from *kweə₁t‑. Zero-grade form *kwət‑, becoming *kwat‑.

cascara buckthorn , cask , scutch , squash ²; concuss , discuss , percuss , rescue , soukous , succussion , from Latin quatere (past participle quassus, in composition -cussus), to shake, strike;
pasta , paste ¹, pastel , pastiche , pastis , pastry , pâté , patisserie , patty , from Greek passein, to sprinkle.

||[Pokorny ku̯ēt‑ 632.]

r258_ ‌ ‌ k^wetwer-
Four.
Derivatives include four , squad , quarantine , and farthing.

O-grade form *k^wetwor‑.
1. 1. four , from Old English fēower, four;
  2. forty , from Old English fēowertig, forty;
  3. fourteen ; fortnight , from Old English fēowertēne, fourteen (-tēne, ten; see dekm̥ ). a-c all from Germanic *fe(d)wor‑, probably from *k^wetwor‑.
2. quatrain ; cater-cornered , quattrocento , from Latin quattuor, four.
3. charpoy , czardas , from Old Iranian cathwārō, four.
Multiplicatives *k^weturs, *k^wetrus, and combining forms *k^wetur‑, *k^wetru‑.
1. cahier , carillon , carnet , casern , quaternary , quaternion , quire ¹, from Latin quater, four times.
2. cadre , quadrate , quadrille ¹, quarrel ², quarry ²; escadrille , squad , square , trocar , from Latin quadrum, square.
3. quadri- , from Latin quadri‑, four.
4. quadrant , from Latin quadrāns, a fourth part.
5. quarantine , from Latin quadrāgintā, forty (-gintā, ten times; see dekm̥ ).
6. quadricentenary , from Latin quadri(n)gentī, four hundred.
7. Variant form *k^wet(w)r̥‑.
  1. tetra- , from Greek tetra‑, four;
  2. tessera ; diatessaron , from Greek tessares, tettares, four;
  3. tetrad , from Greek tetras, group of four;
  4. zero-grade form *k^wt(w)r̥‑. trapezium , from Greek tra‑, four.
Ordinal adjective *k^wetur-to‑.
1. 1. fourth , from Old English fēortha, fēowertha, fourth;
  2. firkin , from Middle Dutch veerde, fourth;
  3. farthing , from Old English fēorthing, fēorthung, fourth part of a penny. a-c all from Germanic *fe(d)worthōn‑.
2. quadrille ², quadroon , quart , quartan , quarter , quarto ; écarté , from Latin quārtus, fourth, quarter.

||[Pokorny k^u̯etu̯er‑ 642.]

r259_ ‌ ‌ k^wo-
Also k^wi-.
Stem of relative and interrogative pronouns.
Derivatives include who , whether , either , quorum , quip , and quality.

1. who , whose , whom , from Old English hwā, hwæs, hwǣm, who, whose, whom, from Germanic personal pronouns *hwas, *hwasa, *hwam;
2. what , from Old English hwæt, what, from Germanic pronoun *hwat;
3. why , from Old English hwȳ, why, from Germanic adverb *hwī;
4. which , from Old English hwilc, hwelc, which, from Germanic relative pronoun *hwa-līk‑ (*līk‑, body, form; see līk- );
5. how , from Old English hū, how, from Germanic adverb *hwō;
6. 1. when , from Old English hwenne, hwanne, when;
  2. whence , from Old English hwanon, whence. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic adverb *hwan‑.
7. whither , from Old English hwider, whither, from Germanic adverb *hwithrē;
8. where , from Old English hwǣr, where, from Germanic adverb *hwar‑. a-h all from Germanic *hwa‑, *hwi‑.
1. whether ; neither , from Old English hwæther, hwether, which of two, whether;
2. either , from Old English ǣghwæther, ǣther, either, from Germanic phrase *aiwo gihwatharaz, "ever each of two" (*aiwo, *aiwi, ever, and *gi‑, from *ga‑, collective prefix; see aiw- and kom ). Both a and b from Germanic *hwatharaz.
qua , quibble , quorum , from Latin quī, who.
hidalgo , quiddity , quidnunc , quip ; kickshaw , from Latin quid, what, something.
quasi , from Latin quasi, as if (< quam + sī, if; see swo- ), from quam, as, than, how.
quodlibet , from Latin quod, what.
Suffixed form *k^wo-ti.
1. quote , quotidian , quotient ; aliquot , from Latin quot, how many;
2. further suffixed form *k^wo-ty-o‑. posology , from Greek posos, how much.
quondam , from Latin quom, when.
cooncan , from Latin quem, whom.
quantity , from Latin quantus, how great.
quality ; kickshaw , from Latin quālis, of what kind.
cue ², from Latin quandō, when (from *k^wām + -dō, to, til; see de- ).
neuter , from Latin uter, either of two, ultimately from *k^wo-tero‑ (becoming -cuter in such compounds as necuter, neither, from which uter was abstracted out by false segmentation).
ubiquity , from Latin ubi, where, ultimately from locative case *k^wo-bhi (becoming -cubi in such compounds as alicubi, somewhere, from which ubi was abstracted out by false segmentation, perhaps under the influence of ibi, there).
cheese ³, from Old Persian *ciš-ciy, something ( < *k^wid-k^wid).

||[Pokorny k^u̯o‑ 644.]

r260_ ‌ ‌ kwon-
Dog. Oldest form *k̑won‑, becoming *kwon‑ in centum languages.

cynic ; cynosure , Procyon , quinsy , from Greek kuōn, dog.
Suffixed zero-grade form *kwn̥-to‑.
1. hound , from Old English hund, dog;
2. dachshund , from Old High German hunt, dog;
3. keeshond , from Middle Dutch hond, dog. a-c all from Germanic *hundaz.
Nominative form *kwō. corgi , from Welsh ci, dog.
Variant *kan-i‑. canaille , canary , canicular , canine , chenille , kennel ¹, from Latin canis, dog.

||[Pokorny k̑u̯on‑ 632.]

r261_ ‌ ‌ k^wrep-
Body, form, appearance. Probably a verbal root meaning "to appear."

Suffixed form *k^wrep-es‑. midriff , from Old English hrif, belly from Germanic *hrefiz‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *k^wr̥p-es‑. corporal ¹, corporal ³, corporate , corporeal , corposant , corps , corpse , corpulence , corpus , corpuscle , corsage , corse , corset ; leprechaun , from Latin corpus, body, substance.

||[Pokorny 1. krep‑ 620.]

r262_ ‌ ‌ k^wr̥mi-
Worm.

: Rhyme word to *wr̥mi‑, worm (see wer- ²). carmine , crimson , kermes , from Arabic qirmiz, kermes, borrowed from Sanskrit compound kṛmi-ja‑, "(red dye) produced by worms" (-ja‑, produced; see genə- ), from kṛmi‑, worm.

||[Pokorny k^u̯r̥mi‑ 649.]

r263_ ‌ ‌ laks-
Salmon. Suffixed form *laks-o‑.

lox , from Old High German lahs, salmon;
gravlax , from Swedish lax, salmon. Both a and b from Germanic *lahsaz.

|| ||[Pokorny lak̑‑ 653.]

r264_ ‌ ‌ las-
To be eager, wanton, or unruly.

1. lust , from Old English lust, lust;
2. wanderlust , from Old High German lust, desire;
3. list ⁵, from Old English lystan, to please, satisfy a desire, from Germanic denominative verb *lustjan. a-c all from suffixed Germanic zero-grade form *lustuz.
Suffixed form *las-ko‑. lascivious , from Latin lascīvus, wanton, lustful.

||[Pokorny las‑ 654.]

r265_ ‌ ‌ lau-
Gain, profit. Oldest form *leh₂u‑, colored to *lah₂u‑.

Suffixed form *lau-no‑. guerdon , from Old High German lōn, reward from Germanic *launam.
Suffixed zero-grade form *lu-tlo‑. lucrative , lucre , from Latin lucrum, gain, profit.

||[Pokorny lāu‑ 655.]

r266_ ‌ ‌ lē-
To let go, slacken. Contracted from *leə₁‑.

Extended form *lēd‑.
1. 1. let ¹, from Old English lǣtan, to allow, leave undone, from Germanic *lētan;
  2. liege ; allegiance , from Late Latin laetus, semifree colonist, from Germanic derivative *lēthigaz, freed.
2. Zero-grade form *ləd‑.
  1. late , latter , last ¹, from Old English læt, late, with its comparative lætra, latter, and its superlative latost, last, from Germanic *lataz;
  2. let ², from Old English lettan, to hinder, impede (< "to make late"), from Germanic *latjan;
  3. suffixed form *ləd-to‑. lassitude ; alas , from Latin lassus, tired, weary.
Suffixed basic form *lē-ni‑. lenient , lenis , lenitive , lenity , from Latin lēnis, soft, gentle.

||[Pokorny 3. lē(i)‑ 666.]

r267_ ‌ ‌ leb-
To lick; lip.

lip , from Old English lippa, lip, from Germanic *lep‑.
Variant form *lab‑.
1. Suffixed form *lab-yo‑. labial , labium , from Latin labium, lip;
2. suffixed form *lab-ro‑. labellum , labret , labrum , from Latin labrum, lip.

||[Pokorny lē̆b‑ 655.]

r268_ ‌ ‌ leg-
To collect; with derivatives meaning "to speak. " Oldest form *leg̑‑, becoming *leg‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include leech ¹, lecture , legend , intelligent , sacrilege , loyal , and logic.

Perhaps Germanic *lēkjaz, enchanter, one who speaks magic words. leech ¹, from Old English lǣce, physician.
lectern , lection , lecture , legend , legible , legion , lesson ; coil ¹, collect ¹, diligent , elect , florilegium , intelligent , neglect , prelect , sacrilege , select , sortilege , from Latin legere, to gather, choose, pluck, read.
lexicon , logion , -logue , -logy ; alexia , analects , anthology , catalog , dialect , dialogue , dyslexia , eclectic , eclogite , eclogue , horologe , lectotype , prolegomenon , from Greek legein, to gather, speak, with o-grade derivative logos, a gathering, speech (See also 6 below for derivatives independently built to logos).
Suffixed form *leg-no‑. ligneous , ligni- , from Latin lignum, wood, firewood (< "that which is gathered").
Possibly lengthened-grade form *lēg‑.
1. legal , legist , legitimate , lex , loyal ; legislator , privilege , from Latin lēx, law (? < "collection of rules");
2. legacy , legate ; colleague , collegial , delegate , relegate , from Latin denominative lēgāre, to depute, commission, charge (< "to engage by contract"). (It is also possible, but uncertain, that Latin lēx comes, like English law from a form meaning "that which is set or laid down," from legh- ).
Suffixed o-grade form *log-o‑. logic , logistic , logo- , Logos , -logy ; analogous , apologue , apology , Decalogue , epilogue , homologous , logarithm , paralogism , prologue , syllogism , from Greek logos, speech, word, reason.

||[Pokorny leg̑‑ 658.]

r269_ ‌ ‌ legh-
To lie, lay.
Derivatives include ledge , lair , beleaguer , lees , law , and fellow.

Suffixed form *legh-yo‑.
1. lie ¹, from Old English licgan, to lie, from Germanic *ligjan;
2. 1. lay ¹, ledge , ledger , from Old English lecgan, to lay;
  2. belay , from Old English belecgan, to cover, surround (be‑, over; see ambhi ). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *lagjan.
Suffixed form *legh-ro‑.
1. lair , from Old English leger, lair;
2. leaguer ¹; beleaguer , from Middle Dutch leger, lair, camp;
3. laager , lager ; Lagerstätte , stalag , from Old High German legar, bed, lair. a-c all from Germanic *legraz.
lees , from Medieval Latin lia, sediment, from Celtic *leg-yā‑.
Lengthened-grade form *lēgh‑. low ¹, from Old Norse lāgr, low, from Germanic *lēgaz, "lying flat," low.
Suffixed form *legh-to‑. coverlet , litter ; wagon-lit , from Latin lectus, bed.
Suffixed o-grade form *logh-o‑.
1. law ; bylaw , Danelaw , from Old Norse *lagu, lag‑, law, "that which is set down";
2. fellow , from Old Norse lag, a laying down;
3. outlaw , from Old Norse lög, law;
4. anlage , vorlage , from Old High German lāga, act of laying. a-d all from Germanic *lagam.
lagan , from Old Norse lögn, dragnet (< "that which is laid down"), from Germanic *lag-īnō‑.
Suffixed o-grade form *logh-o‑. lochia , from Greek lokhos, childbirth, place for lying in wait.

||[Pokorny legh‑ 658, 2. lēg̑h‑ 660.]

r270_ ‌ ‌ leg^wh-
Light, having little weight.
Derivatives include levity , carnival , elevate , leprechaun , and lung.

Suffixed form *leg^wh-t‑.
1. light ², from Old English līht, lēoht, light;
2. lighter ², from Old English līhtan, to lighten. Both a and b from Germanic *līht(j)az.
Suffixed form *leg^wh-wi‑. leaven , lever , levity ; alevin , alleviate , carnival , elevate , legerdemain , mezzo-relievo , relevant , relieve , from Latin levis, light, with its derivative levāre, to lighten, raise.
Variant form *lag^wh‑. leprechaun , from Old Irish lū‑, small.
Nasalized form *l(e)ng^wh‑. lung , from Old English lungen, lungs (from their lightness), from Germanic *lung‑.
Latin oblīvīscī, to forget, attributed by some to this root, is more likely from lei- .

||[Pokorny leg^u̯h‑ 660.]

r271_ ‌ ‌ lei-
Also slei-.
Slimy.
Derivatives include slime , slick , and oblivion.

1. slime , from Old English slīm, slime;
2. slippery , from Old English slipor, slippery;
3. slick , from Old English *slice, smooth, and -slīcian, to make smooth;
4. lime ³, from Old English līm, cement, birdlime;
5. loam , from Old English lām, loam;
6. slight , from Middle English slight, slender, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse slēttr, smooth, sleek;
7. slip ¹, from Middle English slippen, to slip, probably from a source akin to Middle Dutch and Middle Low German slippen, to slip, slip away;
8. schlep , from Middle Low German slēpen, to drag. a-h all from Germanic *slī̆‑ with various extensions.
Suffixed form *lei-mo‑. limacine , limicoline , from Latin līmus, slime.
Suffixed form *lei-w‑. oblivion , oubliette , from Latin oblīvīscī, to forget (< "to wipe, let slip from the mind"; ob‑, away; see epi ).
Suffixed form *lei-wo‑. leiomyoma , from Greek leios, smooth.
Extended form *(s)leiə‑ (oldest form *(s)leih_x‑), with metathesis *(s)leə(i)‑.
1. Zero-grade form with nasal infix *li-n-ə‑. liniment , from Latin linere (perfect lēvī), to anoint;
2. suffixed zero-grade form *lī‑ (< *liə‑) litotes , from Greek lītos, plain, simple;
3. suffixed metathesized form *leə-wo‑, whence *lē-wo‑. levigate , from Latin lēvis, smooth.

||[Pokorny 3. lei‑ 662.]

r272_ ‌ ‌ leid-
To play, jest. Suffixed o-grade form *loid-o‑.

: ludic , ludicrous ; allude , collude , delude , elude , illusion , interlude , prelude , prolusion , from Latin lūdus, game, play, and lūdere, to play (but both words may possibly be from Etruscan).

||[Pokorny leid‑ 666.]

r273_ ‌ ‌ leig-
To bind. Oldest form *leig̑‑, becoming *leig‑ in centum languages.

leech ², from Middle Low German līk, leech line, from Germanic *līk‑.
Suffixed agent noun *l(e)ig-tor‑. lictor , from Latin lictor, lictor.
Zero-grade form *lig-ā‑. league ¹, legato , liable , liaison , liana , lien , ligament , ligase , ligate , ligature ; alloy , ally , colligate , furl , oblige , rally ¹, religion , rely , from Latin ligāre, to bind.

||[Pokorny 4. leig‑ 668.]

r274_ ‌ ‌ leigh-
To lick. Oldest form *leig̑h‑, becoming *leigh‑ in centum languages.

electuary , lekvar , lichen , from Greek leikhein, to lick.
Zero-grade form *ligh‑.
1. lick , from Old English liccian, to lick;
2. lecher , from Old French lechier, to live in debauchery. Both a and b from Germanic *likkōn.
Nasalized zero-grade form *li-n-gh‑. anilingus , cunnilingus , from Latin lingere, to lick.

||[Pokorny leig̑h‑ 668.]

r275_ ‌ ‌ leik^w-
To leave.
Derivatives include eclipse , loan , and derelict.

Basic form *leik^w‑. eclipse , ellipsis , from Greek leipein, to leave.
O-grade form *loik^w‑. loan , from Old Norse lān, loan, from Germanic *laihwniz.
Zero-grade form *lik^w‑.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *lik^w-o‑. lipogram , from Greek lipo‑, lacking.
2. 1. Germanic compound *ain-lif‑ (see oi-no- );
  2. Germanic compound *twa-lif‑ (see dwo- ). Both a and b from Germanic *-lif‑, left.
Nasalized zero-grade form *li-n-k^w‑. delinquent , derelict , relic , relinquish , from Latin linquere, to leave.

||[Pokorny leik^u̯‑ 669.]

r276_ ‌ ‌ leip-
To stick, adhere; fat.
Derivatives include life , and liver. ¹

life , lively , from Old English līf, life (< "continuance"), from Germanic *lībam.
1. live ¹, from Old English lifian, libban, to live;
2. lebensraum , from Old High German lebēn, to live. Both a and b from Germanic *libēn.
1. leave ¹, from Old English lǣfan, to leave, have remaining;
2. delay , relay , from Old French laier, to leave, from Frankish *laibjan. Both a and b from o-grade Germanic causative *-laibjan.
liver ¹, from Old English lifer, liver (formerly believed to be the blood-producing organ), from Germanic *librō.
Zero-grade form *lip‑. lipo- , from Greek lipos, fat.
Variant form *əleibh‑. aliphatic ; synalepha , from Greek aleiphein, to anoint with oil.

||[Pokorny 1. leip‑ 670.]

r277_ ‌ ‌ leis-¹
Track, furrow.

O-grade form *lois‑.
1. last ³, from Old English lāst, lǣst, sole, footprint, from Germanic *laist‑;
2. last ², from Old English lǣstan, to continue, from Germanic *laistjan, "to follow a track";
3. suffixed form *lois-ā‑. lore ¹, from Old English lār, learning, from Germanic *laizō.
learn , from Old English leornian, to learn, from Germanic zero-grade form *liznōn, "to follow a course (of study).".
Suffixed full-grade form *leis-ā‑. delirium , from Latin līra, a furrow.

||[Pokorny leis‑ 671.]

r278_ ‌ ‌ leis-²
Small.

: least , less , from Old English comparative lǣs, lǣssa and superlative lǣst, lǣrest, from Germanic comparative *lais-izō and superlative *lais-ista‑.

|| ||[Pokorny 2. lei‑ 661.]

r279_ ‌ ‌ leit-
To go forth, die.

Suffixed o-grade form *loit-eyo‑.
1. lead ¹, from Old English lǣdan, to lead;
2. leitmotif , from Old High German leitan, to lead. Both a and b from Germanic *laidjan.
Suffixed variant o-grade form *loit-ā‑. load , lode ; livelihood , from Old English lād, course, way, from Germanic *laidō.

||[Pokorny leit(h)‑ 672.]

r280_ ‌ ‌ lendh-
Open land.

land ; island , from Old English land, land;
bilander , landscape , uitlander , from Middle Dutch land, land;
auslander , geländesprung , hinterland , landsleit , landsman ², from Old High German lant, land;
landgrave , landgravine , from Middle Low German lant, country;
landrace ², Landsmål , from Old Norse land, land;
lawn ¹, from Old French launde, heath, pasture. a-e all from Germanic *landam; f from Germanic, or from Celtic *landā‑.

||[Pokorny 3. lendh‑ 675.]

r281_ ‌ ‌ leu-
To loosen, divide, cut apart.
Derivatives include forlorn , analysis , and solve.

Extended Germanic root *leus‑.
1. 1. lorn , losel , from Old English -lēosan, to lose;
  2. 1. forlorn , from Old English forlēosan, to forfeit, lose;
    2. forlorn hope , from Dutch verliezen (past participle verloren), to lose. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *fer-leusan, *far-leusan (*fer‑, *far‑, prefix denoting rejection or exclusion; see per ¹). Both a and b from Germanic *leusan, with Old English and Dutch past participle loren from Germanic *luzana‑, from Indo-European suffixed zero-grade form *lus-ono‑.
2. 1. leasing , -less , from Old English lēas, "loose," free from, without, untrue, lacking;
  2. lose , loss , from Old English los, loss;
  3. loose , from Old Norse lauss, louss, loose;
  4. loess , from German dialectal lösch, loose. a-d all from Germanic *lausaz.
3. leister , from Old Norse ljōsta, to strike, perhaps from Germanic *leustan.
Basic form *leu‑.
1. lag ², probably from a source akin to Swedish lagg, barrel stave (< "split piece of wood"), from Germanic *lawwō.
2. Zero-grade form *lu‑.
  1. lyo- , lysis , lyso- , -lyte , lytic , -lytic ; analysis , catalysis , dialysis , lyase , palsy , paralysis , tachylyte , from Greek lūein, to loosen, release, untie;
  2. lues , from Latin luēs, plague, pestilence (< "dissolution, putrefaction");
  3. prefixed form *se-lu‑ (se‑, apart; see s(w)e- ). soluble , solute , solve ; absolute , absolve , assoil , consolute , dissolve , resolute , resolve , from Latin solvere, to loosen, untie.

||[Pokorny 2. leu‑ 681.]

r282_ ‌ ‌ leubh-
To care, desire; love.
Derivatives include livelong , belief , and libido.

Suffixed form *leubh-o‑. lief ; leman , livelong , from Old English lēof, dear, beloved, from Germanic *leubaz.
O-grade form *loubh‑.
1. 1. leave ², from Old English lēaf, permission (< "pleasure, approval");
  2. furlough , from Middle Dutch verlof, leave, permission (ver‑, intensive prefix, from Germanic *fer‑, see per ¹);
  3. belief , from Old English gelēafa, belief, faith, from Germanic *galaubō (*ga‑, intensive prefix; see kom ). a-c all from Germanic *laubō.
2. believe , from Old English gelēfan, belēfan, to believe, trust (be‑, about; see ambhi ), from Germanic *galaubjan, "to hold dear," esteem, trust (*ga‑, intensive prefix; see kom ).
Zero-grade form *lubh‑.
1. Suffixed form *lubh-ā‑. love , from Old English lufu, love, from Germanic *lubō.
2. Suffixed (stative) form *lubh-ē‑. quodlibet , from Latin libēre, to be dear, be pleasing.
3. libido , from Latin libīdō, pleasure, desire.

||[Pokorny leubh‑ 683.]

r283_ ‌ ‌ leudh-
To mount up, grow. Oldest form *h₁leudh‑.

Basic form *leudh‑. landsleit , from Old High German liut, person, people, from Germanic *liud-i‑.
Suffixed form *leudh-ero‑. liberal , liberate , libero , libertine , liberty , livery ; deliver , from Latin līber, free (the precise semantic development is obscure).

||[Pokorny 1. leudh‑ 684.]

r284_ ‌ ‌ leu(ə)-
To wash. Oldest form *leu(h₃)‑.

Suffixed form *lou-kā‑. lye , from Old English lēag, lye, from Germanic *laugō.
Suffixed form *lou-tro‑.
1. lather , from Old English lēthran, līthran, to lather;
2. lutefisk , from Old Norse laudhr, soap, foam.
Variant form *law‑.
1. loment , lotion ; ablution , alluvion , colluvium , deluge , dilute , eluent , elute , eluvium , from Latin lavere, to wash (in compounds, -luere);
2. form *law-ā‑. launder , lavabo , lavage , lavatory , lave , lavish , from Latin lavāre, to wash;
3. latrine , from Latin lavātrīna, lātrīna, a bath, privy.
O-grade form *lou‑. pyrolusite , from Greek louein, to wash.

||[Pokorny lou‑ 692.]

r285_ ‌ ‌ leugh-
To tell a lie.

1. warlock , from Old English lēogan, to lie;
2. belie , from Old English belēogan, to deceive (be‑, about; see ambhi ). Both a and b from Germanic *leugan.
lie ², from Old English lyge, a lie, falsehood, from Germanic *lugiz.

||[Pokorny 1. leugh‑ 686.]

r286_ ‌ ‌ leuk-
Light, brightness.
Derivatives include light ¹, illuminate , lunatic , lucid , and lynx.

Basic form *leuk‑.
1. Suffixed form *leuk-to‑.
  1. light ¹, from Old English lēoht, līht, light;
  2. lightning , from Old English līhtan, to shine, from Germanic *leuht-jan, to make light. Both a and b from Germanic *leuhtam.
2. Basic form *leuk‑. luculent , lux ; Lucifer , luciferin , from Latin lūx, light.
3. Suffixed form *leuk-smen‑. limbers , limn , lumen , luminary , luminous ; illuminate , phillumenist , from Latin lūmen, light, opening.
4. Suffixed form *leuk-snā‑. Luna , lunar , lunate , lunatic , lune , lunula ; mezzaluna , sublunary , from Latin lūna, moon.
5. Suffixed form *leuk-stro‑.
  1. luster , lustrum , from Latin lūstrum, purification;
  2. illustrate , from Latin lūstrāre, to purify, illuminate.
6. Suffixed form *leuko-dhro‑. lucubrate ; elucubration , from Latin lūcubrāre, to work by lamplight.
7. Suffixed form *leuk-o‑. leuko- ; melaleuca , from Greek leukos, clear, white.
8. Suffixed form *leuk-os, *leuk-es‑. risk , perhaps ultimately from Old Iranian raučah‑, day (Old Persian raucah‑).
O-grade form *louk‑.
1. Suffixed form *louk-o‑.
  1. lea , from Old English lēah, meadow (< "place where light shines"), from Germanic *lauhaz;
  2. levin , from Middle English levin, lightning, from Germanic *lauh-ubni‑.
2. Suffixed (iterative) form *louk-eyo‑. lucent , lucid ; elucidate , noctiluca , pellucid , relucent , translucent , from Latin lūcēre, to shine.
Zero-grade form *luk‑.
1. Suffixed form *luk-sno‑. link ², lychnis , from Greek lukhnos, lamp.
2. Attributed by some to this root (but more likely of obscure origin) is Greek lunx, lynx (as if from its shining eyes) lynx , ounce ².

||[Pokorny leuk‑ 687.]

r287_ ‌ [‌ līk-
Body, form; like, same. Germanic root.
Derivatives include alike , each , and frolic.

lych-gate , from Old English līc, form, body.
-ly ¹, -ly ², from Old English -līc, having the form of.
1. alike , like ², likely , from Old English gelīc, similar, and Old Norse (g)līkr, like, both from Germanic *galīkaz;
2. each ; every , from Old English ǣlc, each, from Germanic phrase *aiwo galīkaz, "ever alike" (*aiwo,*aiwi, ever; see aiw- ).
Germanic compound *is-līk‑ (see i- ).
alike , from Old English onlīc, from Germanic *ana-līkaz.
frolic , from Middle Dutch -lijc, -like.
like ¹, from Old English līcian, to please, from Germanic *līkjan.
Germanic compound *hwa-līk‑ (see k^wo- ).

||[Pokorny 2. lē̆ig‑ 667.] ]

r288_ ‌ ‌ lī̆no-
Flax.

Form *lino‑. linoleic acid , from Greek linon, flax.
Form *līno‑. leno , line ¹, line ², lineage , linen , lingerie , linnet , lint ; align , crinoline , linea aspera , linseed , from Latin līnum, flax, linen, thread.

||[Pokorny lī̆-no‑ 691.]

r289_ ‌ ‌ lūs-
Louse.

: louse , from Old English lūs, louse, from Germanic *lūs‑.

||[Pokorny lū̆s‑ 692.]

r290_ ‌ ‌ mā-¹
Good; with derivatives meaning "occurring at a good moment, timely, seasonable, early. " Oldest form *meh₂‑, colored to *mah₂‑, becoming *mā‑.

Suffixed form *mā-tu‑.
1. Further suffixed form *mā-tu-ro‑. mature ; immature , premature , from Latin mātūrus, seasonable, ripe, mature;
2. further suffixed form *mā-tu-to‑. matinee , matins , matutinal , from Latin Mātūta, name of the goddess of dawn.
Suffixed form *mā-ni‑.
1. mañana , from Latin māne, (in) the morning;
2. manes , from Latin mānis, mānus, good.

||[Pokorny 2. mā‑ 693.]

r291_ ‌ ‌ mā-²
Mother. A linguistic near-universal found in many of the world's languages, often in reduplicated form.

mamma ², mammal , mammilla , mamoncillo , from Latin mamma, breast.
Probably from this root is Greek Maia, "good mother" (respectful form of address to old women), also nurse Maia , maieutic ; maiasaura .
mama , more recently formed in the same way.

||[Pokorny 3. mā 694.]

r292_ ‌ ‌ mag-
Also mak-.
To knead, fashion, fit. Oldest forms *mag̑‑, *mak̑‑, becoming *mag‑, *mak‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include make , mason , mingle , magma , and mass.

1. 1. make , from Old English macian, to make;
  2. mason , from Old French masson, mason;
  3. maquillage , from Middle Dutch maken, to make. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic verb *makōn, to fashion, fit.
2. match ¹, from Old English gemæcca, mate, spouse, from Germanic compound noun *ga-mak-(j)ōn‑, "one who is fitted with (another)" (*ga‑, with, together; see kom ). Both a and b from Germanic *mak‑.
1. mingle , from Old English mengan, to mix;
2. among , mongrel , from Old English gemang, mixture, crowd (ge‑, together; see kom ). Both a and b from Germanic nasalized form *mangjan, to knead together.
Suffixed form *mak-yo‑. magma , from Greek magma, unguent, from massein (aorist stem mag‑), to knead.
Suffixed lengthened-grade form *māg-ya‑. mass ; amass , from Greek māza, maza, a (kneaded) lump, barley cake.
Suffixed lengthened-grade form *māk-ero‑. macerate , from Latin mācerāre, to tenderize, to soften (food) by steeping.

||[Pokorny mag̑‑ 696, 2. māk‑ 698, men(ə)k‑ 730.]

r293_ ‌ ‌ magh-
To be able, have power.
Derivatives include dismay , might ¹, machine , and magic.

1. may ¹, from Old English magan, to be able;
2. dismay , from Old French esmaier, to frighten. Both a and b from Germanic *magan, to be able.
might ¹, from Old English miht, power, from Germanic suffixed form *mah-ti‑, power.
main , from Old English mægen, power, from Germanic suffixed form *mag-inam, power.
Suffixed lengthened-grade form *māgh-anā‑, "that which enables." machine , mechanic , mechanism , mechano- ; deus ex machina , from Greek (Attic) mēkhanē, (Doric) mākhanā, device.
Possibly suffixed form *magh-u‑. magic , magus , from Old Persian maguš, member of a priestly caste (< "mighty one").

||[Pokorny magh‑ 695.]

r294_ ‌ ‌ maghu-
Young person of either sex. Suffixed form *magho-ti‑.

maid , maiden , from Old English mægden, virgin;
matjes herring , from Dutch maagd, maid. Both a and b from Germanic *magadi‑, with diminutive *magadin‑.

||[Pokorny maghos 696.]

r295_ ‌ ‌ māk-
Long, thin. Oldest form *meh₂k̑‑, colored to *mah₂k̑‑, becoming *māk̑ in satem languages and *māk‑ in centum languages.

Zero-grade form *mək‑ becoming *mak‑.
1. 1. meager , from Latin macer, thin;
  2. macro- , macron ; amphimacer , from Greek makros, long, large. Both (i) and (ii) from suffixed form *mak-ro‑.
2. emaciate , from Latin maciāre, to make thin, from suffixed form *mak-ye‑.
Suffixed full-grade form *māk-es‑. mecopteran , paramecium , from Greek mēkos, length.

||[Pokorny māk̑‑ 699.]

r296_ ‌ ‌ man-¹
Also mon-.
Man.

Extended forms *manu‑, *manw‑.
1. man ; leman , Norman ¹, from Old English man(n) (plural menn), man;
2. fugleman , landsman ², from Old High German man, man;
3. manikin , mannequin , from Middle Dutch man, man;
4. yeoman , perhaps from Old Frisian man, man;
5. Norman ¹, ombudsman , from Old Norse madhr, mannr, man;
6. Alemanni , possibly from Germanic *Ala-manniz, tribal name (< "all men": *ala‑, all; see al- ³). a-f all from Germanic *manna‑ (plural *manniz);
7. Manu , from Sanskrit manuḥ, man, from Indo-Iranian *manu‑.
mensch , from Old High German mennisco, human, from Germanic adjective *manniska‑, human, from *manna‑ (see 1).
muzhik , from Russian muzh, man, male, from Slavic suffixed form *mon-gyo‑.

||[Pokorny manu-s 700.]

r297_ ‌ ‌ man-²
Hand.
Derivatives include manacle , maneuver , and manure.

1. manacle , manage , manège , manner , manual , manubrium , manus ; amanuensis , maintain , maneuver , manicotti , manicure , manifest , mansuetude , manufacture , manumit , manure , manuscript , mastiff , mortmain , quadrumanous , from Latin manus, hand;
2. maniple , manipulation , from Latin manipulus, handful (-pulus, perhaps -ful; see pelə- ¹).
Suffixed form *man-ko‑, maimed in the hand. manqué , from Latin mancus, maimed, defective.
emancipate , from Latin compound manceps, "he who takes by the hand," purchaser (-ceps, agential suffix, "taker"; see kap- ).
mandamus , mandate , Maundy Thursday ; command , commando , commend , countermand , demand , recommend , remand , from Latin compound mandāre, "to put into someone's hand," entrust, order (-dere, to put; see dhē- ).

||[Pokorny mə-r 740.]

r298_ ‌ ‌ marko-
Horse.

marshal , from Old French mareschal, from Frankish *marha-skalkaz, horse-servant (*skalkaz, servant).
mare ¹, from Old English mere, miere, mare, from Germanic feminine *marhjōn‑.

||[Pokorny marko‑ 700.]

r299_ ‌ ‌ māter-
Mother. Based ultimately on the baby-talk form mā- ² , with the kinship term suffix *-ter‑.
Derivatives include mother ¹, matrix , and matter.

1. mother ¹, from Old English mōdor, mother;
2. mother ², from Middle Dutch moeder, mother. Both a and b from Germanic *mōdar‑.
alma mater , mater , maternal , maternity , matriculate , matrix , matron ; madrepore , matrimony , from Latin māter, mother.
metro- ; metropolis , from Greek mētēr, mother.
material , matter , from Latin māteriēs, māteria, tree trunk (< "matrix," the tree's source of growth), hence hard timber used in carpentry, hence (by a calque on Greek hūlē, wood, matter) substance, stuff, matter.
Demeter , from Greek compound Dēmētēr, name of the goddess of produce, especially cereal crops (dē‑, possibly meaning "earth").

||[Pokorny mātér‑ 700.]

r300_ ‌ ‌ me-¹
Oblique form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. For the nominative see eg .

me , myself , from Old English mē̆ (dative and accusative), from Germanic *mē̆‑.
Possessive adjective *mei-no‑.
1. mine ², my , from Old English mīn, my;
2. Mynheer , from Middle Dutch mijn, my. Both a and b from Germanic *mīn‑.
Possessive adjective *me-yo‑. Madame , Monsieur , from Latin meus, mine.
Genitive form *me-wo. mavourneen , from Old Irish mo, my.

||[Pokorny 1. me‑ 702.]

r301_ ‌ ‌ me-²
In the middle of.

Suffixed form *me-dhi. midwife , from Old English mid, among, with, from Germanic *mid‑.
Suffixed form *me-ta. meta- , from Greek meta, between, with, beside, after.

||[Pokorny 2. me‑ 702.]
See also medhyo- .

r302_ ‌ ‌ mē-¹
Expressing certain qualities of mind. Oldest form *meh₁‑.

Suffixed o-grade form *mō-to‑.
1. mood ¹, from Old English mōd, mind, disposition;
2. gemütlich , gemütlichkeit , from Old High German muot, mind, spirit. Both a and b from Germanic *mōthaz.
Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *mō-s‑. moral , morale , mores , morose , from Latin mōs, wont, humor, manner, custom.

||[Pokorny 5. mē‑ 704.]

r303_ ‌ ‌ mē-²
To measure. Oldest form *meh₁‑.
Derivatives include piecemeal , immense , meter ¹, geometry , moon , and semester.

Basic form mē‑.
1. Suffixed form *mē-lo‑. meal ²; piecemeal , from Old English mǣl, "measure, mark, appointed time, time for eating, meal," from Germanic *mēlaz.
2. Suffixed form *mē-ti‑.
  1. measure , mensural ; commensurate , dimension , immense , from Latin mētīrī, to measure;
  2. Metis , from Greek mētis, wisdom, skill.
3. Possibly Greek metron, measure, rule, length, proportion, poetic meter (but referred by some to med- ). meter ¹, meter ², meter ³, -meter , metrical , -metry ; diameter , gematria , geometry , isometric , metrology , metronome , symmetry .
4. Reduplicated zero-grade form *mi-mə‑. mahout , maund , from Sanskrit mimīte, he measures.
Extended and suffixed forms *mēn‑, *mēn-en‑, *mēn-ōt‑, *mēn-s‑, moon, month (an ancient and universal unit of time measured by the moon).
1. moon ; Monday , from Old English mōna, moon, from Germanic *mēnōn‑.
2. month , from Old English mōnath, month, from Germanic *mēnōth‑.
3. meno- ; amenorrhea , catamenia , dysmenorrhea , emmenagogue , menarche , meniscus , menopause , from Greek mēn, mēnē, month.
4. menses , menstrual , menstruate ; bimestrial , semester , trimester , from Latin mēnsis, month.

||[Pokorny 3. mē‑ 703, mēnōt 731.]

r304_ ‌ ‌ mē-³
Big. Oldest form *meh₁‑.

Suffixed (comparative) form *mē-is‑. more , from Old English māra, greater, and māre (adverb), more, from Germanic *maizōn‑.
Suffixed (superlative) form *mē-isto‑. most , from Old English mǣst, most, from Germanic *maista‑.
Suffixed form *mē-ro‑, *mē-ri‑. Märchen , from Old High German māri, news, narration.
Suffixed o-grade form *mō-ro‑. claymore , from Gaelic mōr, big, great.

||[Pokorny 4. mē‑ 704.]

r305_ ‌ ‌ mē-⁴
To cut down grass or grain with a sickle or scythe. Oldest form *meh₁‑.

mow ², from Old English māwan, to mow, from Germanic *mē‑.
Suffixed form *mē-ti‑. aftermath , from Old English mǣth, a mowing, a mown crop, from Germanic *mēdiz.
Suffixed form *mē-twā‑, a mown field. mead ², meadow , from Old English mǣd, meadow, from Germanic *mēdwō.

||[Pokorny 2. mē‑ 703.]

r306_ ‌ ‌ med-
To take appropriate measures.
Derivatives include medicine , modest , modern , commodity , and empty.

1. mete ¹, from Old English metan, to measure (out), from Germanic *metan;
2. meet ², from Old English gemǣte, "commensurate," fit (ge‑, with; see kom ), from Germanic derivative *mǣtō, measure.
1. medical , medicate , medicine , medico ; metheglin , remedy , from Latin medērī, to look after, heal, cure;
2. meditate , from Latin meditārī, to think about, consider, reflect.
Suffixed form *med-es‑.
1. modest ; immodest , from Latin modestus, "keeping to the appropriate measure," moderate;
2. moderate ; immoderate , from Latin moderārī, "to keep within measure," to moderate, control. Both a and b from Latin *modes‑, replacing *medes‑ by influence of modus (see 5 below).
Medusa , from Greek medein, to rule (feminine participle medousa < *med-ont-ya).
Suffixed o-grade form *mod-o‑. modal , mode , model , modern , modicum , modify , modulate , module , modulus , mold ¹, mood ², moulage ; accommodate , commode , commodious , commodity , from Latin modus, measure, size, limit, manner, harmony, melody.
Suffixed o-grade form *mod-yo‑. modiolus , mutchkin , from Latin modius, a measure of grain.
Possibly lengthened o-grade form *mōd‑.
1. mote ², must ¹, from Old English mōtan, to have occasion, to be permitted or obliged;
2. empty , from Old English ǣmetta, rest, leisure, from Germanic compound *ē-mōt-ja‑ (prefix *ē‑, meaning uncertain, from Indo-European *ē, *ō, to). Both a and b from Germanic *mōt‑, ability, leisure.

||[Pokorny 1. med‑ 705.]

r307_ ‌ ‌ medhu-
Honey; also mead.

mead ¹, from Old English meodu, mead, from Germanic *medu.
amethyst , methylene , from Greek methu, wine.

||[Pokorny médhu‑ 707.]

r308_ ‌ ‌ medhyo-
Middle.
Derivatives include middle , medieval , and meridian.

1. mid ¹, midst ; amid , from Old English midd(e), middle;
2. middle , from Old English middel, middle, from West Germanic diminutive form *middila‑;
3. Midgard , from Old Norse Midhgardhr, Midgard, from Germanic compound *midja-gardaz, "middle zone," name of the earth conceived as an intermediate zone lying between heaven and hell (*gardaz, enclosure, yard; see gher- ¹). a-c all from Germanic *midja‑.
mean ³, medal , medial , median , mediastinum , mediate , medium , mezzaluna , mezzanine , mezzotint , mizzen , moiety , mullion ; intermediate , medieval , mediocre , mediterranean , meridian , milieu , from Latin medius, middle, half.
meso- , from Greek mesos, middle.
minge , from Romani mindž, vagina, possibly from Armenian mēǰ (stem miǰ‑), middle.

||[Pokorny medhi‑ 706.]
See also me- ².

r309_ ‌ ‌ meg-
Great. Oldest form *meg̑‑, becoming *meg‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include much , magnate , mayor , maestro , and maharajah.

1. mickle , much , from Old English micel, mycel, great;
2. mickle , from Old Norse mikill. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *mik-ila‑.
Suffixed form *mag-no‑. magnate , magnitude , magnum ; magnanimous , magnific , magnificent , magnifico , magnify , magniloquent , from Latin magnus, great.
Suffixed (comparative) form *mag-yos‑.
1. major , major-domo , majority , majuscule , mayor , from Latin māior, greater;
2. maestoso , majesty , from Latin māiestās, greatness, authority;
3. maestro , magisterial , magistral , magistrate , master , Mister , mistral , mistress , from Latin magister, master, high official (< "he who is greater").
Suffixed (superlative) form *mag-samo‑. maxim , maximum , from Latin maximus, greatest.
Suffixed (feminine) form *mag-ya‑, "she who is great." may ², May , from Latin Maia, name of a goddess.
Suffixed form *meg-ə-(l‑). mega- , megalo- ; acromegaly , omega , from Greek megas (stem megal‑), great.
Suffixed (superlative) form meg-(ə)-isto‑. Almagest , Hermes Trismegistus , from Greek megistos, greatest.
Variant form *megh‑ (< *meg-ə‑) Mahabharata , maharaja , maharani , maharishi , mahatma , Mahayana , mahout , from Sanskrit mahā‑, mahat‑, great.

||[Pokorny meg̑(h)‑ 708.]

r310_ ‌ ‌ mei-¹
To change, go, move; with derivatives referring to the exchange of goods and services within a society as regulated by custom or law.
Derivatives include mad , molt , mutate , mistake , communism , amoeba , and migrate.

meatus ; congé , irremeable , permeate , from Latin meāre, to go, pass.
Suffixed o-grade form *moi-to‑.
1. mad , from Old English *gemǣdan, to make insane or foolish, from Germanic *ga-maid-jan, denominative from *ga-maid-az, "changed (for the worse)," abnormal (*ga‑, intensive prefix; see kom );
2. mew ¹, molt , mutate ; commute , permute , remuda , transmute , from Latin mūtāre, to change;
3. mutual , from Latin mūtuus, "done in exchange," borrowed, reciprocal, mutual.
Suffixed zero-grade form *mi-tā‑. azimuth , zenith , from Latin sēmita, sidetrack, side path (< "thing going off to the side"; sē‑, apart; see s(w)e- ).
Suffixed zero-grade form *mi-tro‑.
1. Mitra , from Sanskrit mitraḥ, friend, friendship;
2. Mithras , from Avestan and Old Persian mithra‑, contract. Both a and b from Indo-Iranian *mitra‑, friend(ship), contract, god of the contract.
Suffixed extended zero-grade form *mit-to‑.
1. mis- ¹, from Old English mis‑, mis‑, and Old French mes‑ (from Frankish *miss‑);
2. amiss , mistake , from Old Norse mis(s), mis(s)‑, miss, mis‑;
3. miss ¹, from Old English missan, to miss, from Germanic *missjan, to go wrong. a-c all from Germanic *missa‑, "in a changed manner," abnormally, wrongly.
Suffixed o-grade form *moi-n‑ in compound adjective *ko-moin-i‑, "held in common" (*ko‑, together; see kom ).
1. mean ², demean ², from Old English gemǣne, common, public, general, from Germanic *gamainiz;
2. common , commune ¹, commune ², communicate , communism ; excommunicate , incommunicado , from Latin commūnis, common, public, general.
Suffixed o-grade form *moi-n-es‑.
1. municipal , munificent , remunerate , from Latin mūnus, "service performed for the community," duty, work, "public spectacle paid for by a magistrate," gift;
2. immune , from Latin immūnis, exempt from public service (in‑, negative prefix; see ne ).
Possibly extended form *(ə)meig^w‑ (but more likely a separate root).
1. amoeba , from Greek ameibein, to change;
2. migrate ; emigrate , from Latin migrāre, to change one's place of living.

||[Pokorny 2. mei‑, 3. mei‑ 710, mei-g^u̯‑ 713, 2. mei-t(h)‑ 715.]

r311_ ‌ ‌ mei-²
Small.
Derivatives include menu , mince , minestrone , and minister.

meiofauna , meiosis ; Miocene , from Greek meiōn, less, lesser, from extended variant *meiu‑.
Zero-grade compounded suffixed form *ne-mi-s (see ne ).
Suffixed zero-grade form *mi-nu‑.
1. menu , mince , minuend , minuet , minute ², minutiae , comminute , diminish , from Latin minuere, to reduce, diminish;
2. minor , minus ; minuscule , from Latin minor (influenced by the comparative suffix -or), less, lesser, smaller;
3. further suffixed (superlative) form *minu-mo‑. minim , minimum , from Latin minimus, least;
4. minestrone , minister , ministry , mystery ², from Latin minister, an inferior, servant (formed after magister, master; see meg- );
5. Menshevik , from Russian men'she, less.

||[Pokorny 5. mei‑ 711.]

r312_ ‌ ‌ meigh-
To urinate. Oldest form *meig̑h‑, becoming *meigh‑ in centum languages.

1. mist , from Old English mist, mist;
2. mizzle ¹, from Middle English misellen, to drizzle, from a source perhaps akin to Dutch dialectal mieselen, to drizzle;
3. missel thrush , mistletoe , from Old English mistel, mistletoe, from Germanic diminutive form *mihst-ila‑, mistletoe (which is propagated through the droppings of the missel thrush). a-c all from Germanic suffixed form *mih-stu‑, urine, hence mist, fine rain.
Suffixed form *migh-tu‑. micturate , from Latin micturīre, to want to urinate (desiderative of meiere, to urinate).

||[Pokorny meig̑h‑ 713.]

r313_ ‌ ‌ meik-
Also meig-.
To mix. Oldest forms *meik̑‑, *meig̑‑, becoming *meik‑, *meig‑ in centum languages.

Zero-grade variant form *mig‑. migmatite ; amphimixis , apomixis , panmixia , from Greek mignunai, to mix, and noun mixis (< *mig-ti‑), a mingling.
Suffixed zero-grade form *mik-sk‑. meddle , medley , mélange , melee , mesclun , mestizo , miscellaneous , miscible , mix , mixture , mustang ; admix , commix , immix , miscegenation , pell-mell , promiscuous , from Latin miscēre (past participle mixtus), to mix.
Possibly Germanic *maisk‑ (phonological details unclear) mash , from Old English *māsc, *mācs, māx‑, mashed malt.

||[Pokorny mei-k̑‑ 714.]

r314_ ‌ ‌ mei-no-
Opinion, intention.

moan , from Old English *mān, opinion, complaint, from Germanic *main‑.
mean ¹; bemoan , from Old English mǣnan, to signify, tell, complain of, moan, from Germanic *mainjan.

||[Pokorny mei-no‑ 714.]

r315_ ‌ ‌ mel-¹
Soft; with derivatives referring to soft or softened materials of various kinds.

Extended form *meld‑.
1. melt , from Old English meltan, to melt, from Germanic *meltan.
2. Possibly Germanic *miltja‑. milt , from Old English milte, spleen, and Middle Dutch milte, milt.
3. Possibly Germanic *malta‑. malt , from Old English mealt, malt.
4. Suffixed variant form *mled-sno‑. blenny , from Greek blennos, slime, also a name for the blenny.
5. Suffixed zero-grade form *ml̥d-wi‑. moil , mojito , mollify , mollusk , mouillé ; emollient , from Latin mollis, soft.
6. Possibly nasalized variant form *mlad‑. bland , blandish , from Latin blandus, smooth, caressing, flattering, soft-spoken.
Variant form *smeld‑.
1. smelt ¹, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German smelten, to smelt;
2. schmaltz , from Old High German smalz, animal fat;
3. smalt , from Italian smalto, enamel, glaze;
4. enamel , from Old French esmail, enamel. a-d all from Germanic *smelt‑;
5. smelt ², from Old English smelt, smylt, a marine fish, smelt, perhaps from Germanic *smelt‑.
Extended form *meldh‑.
1. mild , from Old English milde, mild, from Germanic *mildja‑.
2. Possibly Greek maltha, a mixture of wax and pitch maltha .
Suffixed form *mel-sko‑. mulch , from Old English mel(i)sc, mylsc, mild, mellow, from Germanic *mil-sk‑.
Extended form *ml̥ək‑. bonanza , chondromalacia , malacology , osteomalacia , from Greek malakos, soft.
Possibly Celtic *molto‑, sheep. mutton , from Old French moton, sheep.
Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *(ə)ml-u‑. amblygonite , amblyopia , from Greek amblus, blunt, dull, dim.

||[Pokorny 1. mel‑ 716.]

r316_ ‌ ‌ mel-²
Strong, great.

Suffixed (comparative) form *mel-yos‑. ameliorate , meliorate , meliorism , from Latin melior, better.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ml̥-to‑. molto , mucho , multi- , multitude , from Latin multus, much, many.

||[Pokorny 4. mel‑ 720.]

r317_ ‌ ‌ mel-³
False, bad, wrong.

mal- , malice , malign ; dismal , malady , malaria , maledict , malefactor , malefic , malentendu , malevolence , malison , malversation , from Latin malus, bad, and male, ill (> malignus, harmful).
Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *ml̥-s‑. blame , blaspheme , from Greek blasphēmos, blasphemous, perhaps from *ml̥s-bhā-mo‑, "speaking evil" (*bhā‑, to speak; see bhā- ²).
Suffixed form *mel-yo‑. markhor , from Avestan mairiia‑, treacherous.

||[Pokorny 2. mel‑ 719, mēlo‑ 724.]

r318_ ‌ ‌ melə-
Also mel-.
To crush, grind; with derivatives referring to various ground or crumbling substances (such as flour) and to instruments for grinding or crushing (such as millstones). Oldest form *melh₂‑.

O-grade form *mol‑. maelstrom , from Middle Dutch malen, to whirl, from Germanic *mal‑.
Full-grade form *mel‑. meal ¹, from Old English melu, flour, meal, from Germanic suffixed form *mel-wa‑.
Zero-grade form *ml̥‑. mold ³, molder , from Old English molde, soil, from Germanic suffixed form *mul-dō.
Full-grade form *mel‑.
1. meunière , mill ¹, mola ², molar ², mole ⁴, moulin ; emolument , immolate , ormolu , from Latin molere, to grind (grain), and its derivative mola, a millstone, mill, coarse meal customarily sprinkled on sacrificial animals;
2. possible suffixed form *mel-iyo‑. mealie , miliary , milium , millet ; gromwell , from Latin milium, millet.
Suffixed variant form *mal-ni‑. malleable , malleolus , mallet , malleus , maul ; pall-mall , from Latin malleus, hammer, mallet.
Zero-grade form *ml̥‑. amylum , mylonite , from Greek mulē, mulos, millstone, mill.
Possibly extended form *mlī‑. blini , blintz , from Old Russian blinŭ, pancake.

||[Pokorny 1. mel‑ 716.]

r319_ ‌ ‌ melg-
To rub off; also to milk. Oldest form *h₂melg̑‑, becoming *h₂melg‑ in centum languages.

1. Zero-grade form *ml̥g‑. emulsion , from Latin mulgēre, to milk.
2. Full-grade form *melg‑.
  1. milk , from Old English meolc, milc;
  2. milch , from Old English -milce, milch, from Germanic suffixed form *meluk-ja‑, giving milk;
  3. milchig , from Old High German miluh, milk. a-c all from Germanic *melkan, to milk, contaminated with an unrelated noun for milk, cognate with the Greek and Latin forms given in II below, to form the blend *meluk‑.
Included here to mark the unexplained fact that no common Indo-European noun for milk can be reconstructed is another root *g(a)lag‑, *g(a)lakt‑, milk, found only in the following:
1. galactic , galacto- , galaxy ; agalactia , polygala , from Greek gala (stem galakt‑), milk.
2. lactate ¹, lactate ², lacteal , lactescent , lacto- , latte , lettuce ; arroz con leche , dulce de leche , from Latin lac, milk.
3. The blended Germanic form cited in I. 2. above.

||[Pokorny mē̆lg̑‑ 722, glag‑ 400.]

r320_ ‌ ‌ melit-
Honey.

hydromel , marmalade , melilot , membrillo , oenomel , from Greek meli, honey.
1. melliferous , mellifluous , molasses , from Latin mel (stem mell‑), honey, from *meld‑, syncopated from *melid‑;
2. suffixed zero-grade form *ml̥d-to‑, "honied." mousse , from Latin mulsus, honey-sweet.
mildew , from Old English mildēaw, honeydew, nectar, from Germanic compound *melith-dauwaz, honeydew (a substance secreted by aphids on leaves; it was formerly imagined to be distilled from the air like dew; *dauwaz, dew; see dheu- ¹), from *melith‑.

||[Pokorny meli-t 723.]

r321_ ‌ ‌ men-¹
To think; with derivatives referring to various qualities and states of mind and thought.
Derivatives include mind , mention , automatic , mania , money , monster , mosaic , music , and amnesia.

Zero-grade form *mn̥‑.
1. Suffixed form *mn̥-ti‑.
  1. mind , from Old English gemynd, memory, mind, from Germanic *ga-mundi‑ (*ga‑, collective prefix; see kom );
  2. mental ¹; amentia , dement , from Latin mēns (stem ment‑), mind;
  3. mention , from Latin mentiō, remembrance, mention.
2. Suffixed form *mn̥-to‑. automatic , from Greek -matos, "willing.".
3. Suffixed form *mn̥-yo‑.
  1. maenad , from Greek mainesthai, to be mad;
  2. Ahriman , from Avestan mainiiuš, spirit.
4. 1. mania , maniac , manic , from Greek maniā, madness;
  2. balletomane , from Greek -manēs, ardent admirer.
Full-grade form *men‑.
1. Suffixed form *men-ti‑.
  1. minnesinger , from Old High German minna, love;
  2. minikin , from Middle Dutch minne, love. Both a and b from Germanic *minthjō.
2. 1. memento , from Latin reduplicated form meminisse, to remember;
  2. comment , from Latin comminīscī, to contrive by thought (com‑, intensive prefix; see kom );
  3. reminiscent , from Latin reminīscī, to recall, recollect (re‑, again, back; see re- );
  4. possibly Latin Minerva, name of the goddess of wisdom Minerva .
3. 1. mentor , from Greek Mentōr, Mentor, man's name (probably meaning "adviser");
  2. -mancy , mantic , mantis , from Greek mantis, seer (vocalism obscure).
4. mandarin , mantra , from Sanskrit mantraḥ, counsel, prayer, hymn.
5. Suffixed form men-es‑. Eumenides , from Greek menos, spirit.
O-grade form *mon‑.
1. Suffixed (causative) form *mon-eyo‑. monish , monition , monitor , monster , monument , muster ; admonish , demonstrate , premonition , summon , from Latin monēre, to remind, warn, advise.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-twa. mosaic , Muse , museum , music , from Greek Mousa, a Muse.
Extended form *mnā‑, contracted from *mnaə‑.
1. amnesia , amnesty , anamnesis , from Greek reduplicated form mimnēskein, to remember.
2. mnemonic , from Greek mnēmōn, mindful.
3. Mnemosyne , from Greek mnēmē, memory.
Indo-European verb phrase *mens dhē‑, "to set mind" (*dhē‑, to put; see dhē- ) underlying compound noun *mn̥s-dhē‑. Ahura Mazda , Mazdaism , Ormazd , from Avestan mazdā‑, wise.

||[Pokorny 3. men‑ 726, mendh‑ 730.]

r322_ ‌ ‌ men-²
To project.
Derivatives include mouth , menace , and mountain.

Suffixed zero-grade form *mn̥-to‑ in a western Indo-European word for a projecting body part, variously "chin, jaw, mouth."
1. mouth , from Old English mūth, mouth, from Germanic *munthaz;
2. mental ², from Latin mentum, chin.
menace , minacious ; amenable , demean ¹, promenade , from Latin minae, projecting points, threats.
eminent , imminent , prominent , promontory , from Latin -minēre, to project, jut, threaten.
Suffixed o-grade form *mon-ti‑. mons , Montagnard , montane , monte , monticule , mount ¹, mount ², mountain ; amount , ultramontane , from Latin mōns (stem mont‑), mountain.

||[Pokorny 1. men‑ 726, 2. menth‑ 732.]

r323_ ‌ ‌ men-³
To remain. Variant suffixed (stative) form *man-ē‑.

: manor , manse , mansion , ménage ; immanent , permanent , remain , from Latin manēre, to remain.

||[Pokorny 5. men‑ 729.]

r324_ ‌ ‌ men-⁴
Small, isolated.

manometer , from Greek manos, rare, sparse.
Suffixed o-grade form *mon-wo‑. monad , monastery , monk , mono- ; pseudomonad , from Greek monos, alone, single, sole.
Possibly also suffixed form *men-i‑, a small fish. minnow , from Middle English meneu, a small fish, from a source akin to Old English myne, mynwe, minnow.

||[Pokorny 4. men‑ 728, m_eni‑ 731.]

r325_ ‌ ‌ mendh-
To learn. Zero-grade form *mn̥dh‑.

: mathematical , mathematics ; chrestomathy , polymath , from Greek manthanein (aorist stem math‑), to learn.

||[Pokorny mendh‑ 730.]

r326_ ‌ ‌ menegh-
Copious.

: many , from Old English manig, mænig, many, from Germanic *managa‑.

||[Pokorny men(e)gh‑ 730.]

r327_ ‌ ‌ mer-
To rub away, harm.
Derivatives include nightmare , morsel , morbid , mortal , mortgage , and ambrosia.

1. nightmare , from Old English mare, mære, goblin, incubus, from Germanic *marōn‑, goblin.
2. marasmus ; amaranth , from Greek marainein, to waste away, wither.
3. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *mor-i‑ in Old Irish fomoire, fomoir, Fomorian, perhaps from earlier *wo-mor-i‑, sinister supernatural being (*wo‑ under; < *upo‑; see upo ): Fomorian .
4. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *mr̥-to‑, "ground down." mortar , from Latin mortārium, mortar.
5. Possibly extended root *merd‑. mordacious , mordant , mordent , morsel ; premorse , remorse , from Latin mordēre, to bite.
6. Possibly suffixed form *mor-bho‑. morbid , from Latin morbus, disease (but this is more likely of unknown origin).
Possibly the same root is *mer‑, "to die," with derivatives referring to death and to human beings as subject to death.
1. Zero-grade form *mr̥‑.
  1. Suffixed form *mr̥-tro‑. murder , from Old English morthor, murder, from Germanic suffixed form *mur-thra‑;
  2. suffixed form *mr̥-ti‑. mort ¹, mortal ; amortize , mortify , postmortem , from Latin mors (stem mort‑), death;
  3. suffixed form *mr̥-yo‑. moribund , mortgage , mortmain , mortuary , murrain , from Latin morī, to die, with irregular past participle mortuus (< *mr̥-two‑), replacing older *mr̥-to‑ (for which see d);
  4. prefixed and suffixed form *n̥-mr̥-to‑, "undying, immortal." *n̥‑, negative prefix; see ne )
    1. immortal , from Latin immortālis;
    2. ambrosia , from Greek ambrotos, immortal, divine(a‑ + -mbrotos, brotos, mortal);
    3. amrita , from Sanskrit amṛtam, immortality (a‑ + mṛta‑, dead).
2. Suffixed o-grade form *mor-t-yo‑. manticore , from Greek mantikhōras (corrupted from marti(o)khōras), manticore, probably from Iranian compound *martiya-khvāra‑, "man-eater" (*khvāra‑, eating; see swel- ), from Old Persian martiya‑, a mortal man.

||[Pokorny 4. mer‑, 5. mer‑ 735.]

r328_ ‌ ‌ merg-
Boundary, border. Oldest form *merg̑‑, becoming *merg‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include marquee , demarcation , and margin.

1. mark ¹, from Old English mearc, boundary, landmark, sign, trace;
2. margrave , from Middle Dutch marc, border;
3. march ², marquee , marquis , marquise , from Old French marc, marche, border country;
4. marchese , marchioness , from Medieval Latin marca, boundary, border;
5. demarcation , from Old Italian marcare, to mark out;
6. mark ², from Old English marc, a mark of weight or money;
7. markka , from Swedish mark, a mark of money;
8. marka , from Middle High German marke, mark of money. a-h all from Germanic *mark‑, boundary, border territory; also to mark out a boundary by walking around it (ceremonially "beating the bounds"); also a landmark, boundary marker, and a mark in general (and in particular a mark on a metal currency bar, hence a unit of currency); these various meanings are widely represented in Germanic descendants and in Romance borrowings.
letters of marque , marquetry ; remark , from Old Norse merki, a mark, from Germanic *markja‑, mark, border.
marc , march ¹, from Frankish *markōn, to mark out, from Germanic denominative verb *markōn.
margin ; emarginate , from Latin margō, border, edge.
Celtic variant form *mrog‑, territory, land. Cymry , from Welsh Cymro, Wales, from British Celtic *kom-brogos, fellow countryman (*kom‑, collective prefix; see kom ), from *brogos, district.

||[Pokorny mereg̑‑ 738.]

r329_ ‌ ‌ meuə-
To push away.

: mob , mobile , moment , momentous , momentum , mosso , motif , motion , motive , motor , move , movement ; commotion , emotion , promote , remote , remove , from Latin movēre, to move.

||[Pokorny 2. meu̯‑ 743.]

r330_ ‌ ‌ mizdho-
Reward.

: meed , from Old English mēd, reward, compensation, meed, from West Germanic *mēdō‑, from Germanic *mizdō.

||[Pokorny mizdhó‑ 746.]

r331_ ‌ ‌ mori-
Body of water; lake (?), sea (?).

1. mere ²; mermaid , from Old English mere, sea, lake, pond;
2. marram grass , from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse marr, sea;
3. meerschaum , from Old High German mari, sea;
4. meerkat , from Middle Dutch meer, sea. a-d all from Germanic *mari‑.
1. marsh , from Old English mersc, merisc, marsh;
2. morass , from Old French maresc, mareis, marsh. Both a and b from Germanic *mariska‑, water-logged land.
maar , mare ², marinara , marine , maritime ; bêche-de-mer , cormorant , mariculture , ormer , ultramarine , from Latin mare, sea.

||[Pokorny mori 748.]

r332_ ‌ ‌ mregh-u-
Short. Oldest form *mreg̑h-u‑, becoming *mregh-u‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *mregh-wi‑. brief , brumal ; abbreviate , abridge , from Latin brevis, short.
Zero-grade form *mr̥ghu‑.
1. 1. merry , from Old English myrge, mirige, pleasant;
  2. mirth , from Old English myrgth, pleasure, joy, from Germanic *murgithō, pleasantness. Both a and b from Germanic *murgja‑, short, also pleasant, joyful.
2. brachy- ; amphibrach , tribrach , from Greek brakhus, short.
3. brace , bracero , brachium , brassard , brassiere , pretzel ; abrachia , embrace , from Greek comparative brakhiōn, shorter, hence also "upper arm" (as opposed to the longer forearm).

||[Pokorny mreg̑hu‑ 750.]

r333_ ‌ ‌ mūs-
A mouse; also a muscle (from the resemblance of a flexing muscle to the movements of a mouse).

mouse , from Old English mūs (plural mȳs), mouse, from Germanic *mūs‑ (plural *mūsiz).
murine , muscle , mussel , mustelid , musteline , from Latin mūs, mouse.
myelo- , myo- ; epimysium , myosotis , mysticete , perimysium , syringomyelia , from Greek mūs, mouse, muscle.
Perhaps suffixed reduced form *mus-ko‑. Muscadet , muscat , muscatel , musk , must ⁵; nutmeg , from Sanskrit muṣkaḥ, testicle, scrotum (? < "little mouse").

||[Pokorny mūs 752.]

r334_ ‌ ‌ nas-
Nose.

nose , nuzzle ; nostril , from Old English nosu, nose, from Germanic zero-grade form *nusō.
ness , from Old English næss, headland, from Germanic *nasja‑.
Lengthened-grade form *nās‑.
1. naris , from Latin nāris, nostril;
2. expressive form *nāss‑. nasal , naso- ; nasturtium , pince-nez , from Latin nāsus, nose.
nark ², from Romany nāk, nose, from expressive Indo-Aryan form *nakka‑.

||[Pokorny nas‑ 755, neu-ks‑ 768.]

r335_ ‌ ‌ nāu-
Boat. Oldest form *neh₂u‑, colored to *nah₂u‑, becoming *nau‑ (before consonants) and *nāw‑ (before vowels).

nacelle , naval , nave ¹, navicular , navigate , navy , from Latin nāvis, ship.
nausea , -naut , nautical , nautilus , noise ; aeronaut , Argonaut , astronaut , cosmonaut , from Greek naus, ship, and nautēs, sailor.

||[Pokorny 1. nāus‑ 755.]

r336_ ‌ ‌ n̥dher-
Under.

1. under , under- , from Old English under, under;
2. U-boat , from Old High German untar, under. Both a and b from Germanic *under‑.
inferior , from Latin īnferus, lower.
infernal , inferno , from Latin īnfernus, lower.
infra- , from Latin īnfrā, below.

||[Pokorny n̥dhos 771.]

r337_ ‌ ‌ ne
Not.
Derivatives include naughty , never , nothing , annul , nice , annihilate , negligee , deny , and renegade.

1. naught , naughty , neither , never , nill , no ¹, no ², none , nor ¹, not , nothing ; hobnob , from Old English ne, not, and nā, no;
2. nay , from Old Norse ne, not;
3. nix ², from Old High German ne, ni, not. a-c all from Germanic *ne‑, *na‑.
annul , nefarious , nescience , neuter , nice , null , nullify , nullipara , from Latin ne‑, not, and nūllus, none (ne‑, + ūllus, any; see oi-no- ).
nimiety , from Latin nimis, too much, excessively, very (< *ne-mi-s, "not little"; *mi‑, little; see mei- ²).
nihilism , nihility , nil ; annihilate , from Latin nihil, nīl, nothing, contracted from nihilum, nothing (< *ne-hīlum, "not a whit, nothing at all"; hīlum, a thing, trifle; origin unknown).
non- ; nonplus , nonsuit , from Latin nōn, not (< *ne-oinom, not one thing"; *oino‑, one; see oi-no- ).
nisi , from Latin nisi, unless (nī, not, from *nei + sī, if; see swo- ).
1. neglect , negligee , negotiate , from Latin prefix neg‑, not;
2. negate ; abnegate , deny , renegade , renege , from Latin negāre, to deny. Both a and b from Italic *nek, not.
nepenthe , from Greek nē‑, not.
Zero-grade combining form *n̥‑.
1. 1. un- ¹, from Old English un‑, not;
  2. Zugunruhe , from Old High German un‑, not. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *un‑.
2. in- ¹, from Latin in‑, not;
3. a- ¹, an- , from Greek a‑, an‑, not;
4. ahimsa , from Sanskrit a‑, an‑, not;
5. compound *n̥-mr̥-to‑ (see mer- ).

||[Pokorny 1. nĕ 756.]

r338_ ‌ ‌ nebh-
Cloud.

Suffixed form *nebh-(e)lo‑.
1. Niflheim , from Old Norse nifl‑, "mist" or "dark," probably from Germanic *nibila‑;
2. Nibelung , from Old High German Nibulunc, Nibilung, from Germanic suffixed patronymic form *nibul-unga‑, beside Old High German nebul, mist, fog, from Germanic *nebla‑.
Suffixed form *nebh-elā‑.
1. nebula , nebulous , from Latin nebula, cloud;
2. nepheline ; nephelometer , from Greek nephelē, cloud.
Suffixed form *nebh-es‑. nephology , from Greek nephos, cloud.
Nasalized form *ne-m-bh‑. nimbus , from Latin nimbus, rain, cloud, aura.

||[Pokorny 2. (enebh‑) 315.]

r339_ ‌ ‌ ned-
To bind, tie.

O-grade form *nod‑.
1. net ¹, from Old English net(t), a net, from Germanic *nati‑;
2. nettle , from Old English netel(e), netle, nettle, from Germanic *nat-ilo, a nettle (nettles or plants of closely related genera such as hemp were used as a source of fiber);
3. ouch ², from Anglo-Norman nouch, brooch, from Germanic *nat-sk‑.
Lengthened o-grade form *nōdo‑. node , nodule , nodus , noil , noose ; denouement , from Latin nōdus, a knot.
With re-formation of the root. nexus ; adiponectin , adnexa , annex , connect , fibronectin , from Latin nectere (past participle nexus), to tie, bind, connect.

||[Pokorny 1. ned‑ 758.]

r340_ ‌ ‌ nek-¹
Death. Oldest form *nek̑‑, becoming *nek‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include nuisance , innocent , and nectarine.

internecine , pernicious , from Latin nex (stem nec‑), death.
Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *nok-eyo‑. nocebo , nocent , nocuous , nuisance ; innocent , innocuous , from Latin nocēre, to injure, harm.
Suffixed o-grade form *nok-s‑. noxious ; obnoxious , from Latin noxa, injury, hurt, damage entailing liability.
Suffixed full-grade form *nek-ro‑. necro- , necrosis ; necromancy , from Greek nekros, corpse.
nectar , nectarine , from Greek nektar, the drink of the gods, "overcoming death" (*tar‑, overcoming; see terə- ²).

||[Pokorny nek̑‑ 762.]

r341_ ‌ ‌ nek-²
To reach, attain. Oldest form *nek̑‑, becoming *nek‑ in centum languages.

O-grade form *nok‑. enough , from Old English genōg, enough, from Germanic *ganōga‑, sufficient, from *ga-nah, "suffices" (*ga‑, collective prefix; see kom ).
Variant form *enk‑.
1. oncogenesis , oncolite , oncology , from Greek reduplicated enenkein, to carry (suppletive aorist of pherein, to carry; see bher- ), with derived noun onkos, a burden, mass, hence a tumor (from suffixed o-grade *onk-o‑; see 2 below).
2. Suffixed o-grade form *onk-o‑. paisa , pice , from Sanskrit aṁśaḥ, part, portion.
3. Compound root *bhrenk‑ (see bher ¹).

||[Pokorny enek̑‑ 316.]

r342_ ‌ ‌ nek^w-t-
Night (perhaps originally "twilight, twilight of the morning and evening" as opposed to *kwsep‑, "the dark of the night"). Probably from a verbal root *neg^w‑, to be dark, be night. O-grade form *nok^w-t‑.

1. night ; fortnight , from Old English niht, neaht, night;
2. Kristallnacht , from Old High German naht, night. Both a and b from Germanic *naht‑.
nocti- , nocturn , nocturnal , equinox , from Latin nox (stem noct‑), night.
noctuid , noctule , from Latin noctua, night owl.
Nix ; nyctalopia , nyctinasty , from Greek nux (stem nukt‑), night.
Perhaps zero-grade form *n̥k^w-t‑. actinium , actino- , from Greek aktīs (stem aktīn‑), ray, traditionally taken as from *n̥k^w-t‑. This derivation is supported by the Sanskrit cognate aktuḥ, meaning both "ray" and "night,", but has recently contested in favor of a derivation from ak-, "sharp," the rays of the sun originally having been conceived of as a pointed weapon. If the oldest meaning of *nek^w-t‑ is "twilight," however, Greek aktīs the traditional derivation from n̥k^w-t‑ can be upheld if the Greek word is considered to have originally referred to the rays of the sun seen in the morning and evening twilight.
Suffixed plain verbal root *neg^w-ro‑. Negro , niello , nigella , nigrescence , nigrosine ; denigrate , film noir , Pinot Noir , from Latin niger, black.

||[Pokorny nek^u̯-(t‑) 762.]

r343_ ‌ ‌ nem-
To assign, allot; also to take.
Derivatives include numb , nemesis , and nomad.

1. numb ; benumb , from Old English niman, to take, seize;
2. nimble , from Old English nǣmel, quick to seize, and numol, quick at learning, seizing;
3. nim , from Old High German nëman, to take. a-c all from Germanic *nem‑.
nemesis ; economy , from Greek nemein, to allot.
Suffixed e-grade form *nom-os, *nom-es‑. namaskar , namaste , from Sanskrit namaḥ, namas‑, obeisance.
O-grade form *nom‑.
1. nome , -nomy ; anomie , antinomian , antinomy , astronomer , astronomy , autonomous , chironomid , Deuteronomy , metronome , nomograph , nomology , nomothetic , numismatic , from Greek nomos, portion, usage, custom, law, division, district;
2. noma , from Greek nomē, pasturage, grazing, hence a spreading, a spreading ulcer;
3. nomad , from Greek nomas, wandering in search of pasture;
4. nummular , nummulite , from Greek nomimos, legal.
Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *nom-eso‑. number , numeral ; enumerate , innumerable , supernumerary , from Latin numerus, number, division.

||[Pokorny 1. nem‑ 763.]

r344_ ‌ ‌ nepōt-
Grandson, nephew. Feminine *neptī‑.

: nephew , nepotism , niece , from Latin nepōs, grandson, nephew, and neptis, granddaughter, niece.

||[Pokorny nepōt‑ 764.]

r345_ ‌ ‌ ner-¹
Under, also on the left; hence, with an eastward orientation, north. Suffixed zero-grade form *nr̥-t(r)o‑.

Nordic , norteño , north , from Old English north, north;
northern , from Old English northerne, northern;
Norse , from Middle Dutch nort, north;
Norman ¹, Norwegian , from Old Norse nordhr, north.

||[Pokorny 2. ner‑ 765.]
Compare deks- .

r346_ ‌ ‌ ner-²
Man; basic sense "vigorous, vital, strong."

: Oldest form *h₂ner‑. andro- , -androus , -andry ; philander , from Greek anēr (stem andr‑, from zero-grade form *ənr‑), man.

||[Pokorny 1. ner-(t‑) 765.]

r347_ ‌ ‌ nes-¹
To return safely home.

harness , from Old French harneis, harness, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Old English, Old High German (in composition), and Old Norse nest, food for a journey, from Germanic *nes-tam.
Suffixed o-grade form *nos-to‑. nostalgia , from Greek nostos, a return home.

||[Pokorny nes‑ 766.]

r348_ ‌ ‌ nes-²
Oblique cases of the personal pronoun of the first person plural. For the nominative see we- .

Zero-grade form *n̥s‑. us , from Old English ūs, us (accusative), from Germanic *uns.
Suffixed (possessive) zero-grade form *n̥s-ero‑. our , ours , from Old English ūser, ūre, our, from Germanic *unsara‑.
O-grade form *nos‑, with suffixed (possessive) form *nos-t(e)ro‑. Nostratic , nostrum ; paternoster , from Latin nōs, we, and noster, our.

||[Pokorny 3. ne‑ 758.]

r349_ ‌ ‌ neu-
To shout.

: Suffixed (participial) o-grade form *now-ent-(yo‑), "shouting." nuncio ; announce , denounce , enunciate , internuncio , pronounce , renounce , from Latin nūntius, "announcing," hence a messenger, also a message, and nūntium, message.

||[Pokorny 1. neu‑ 767.]

r350_ ‌ ‌ newn̥
Nine.

nine , nineteen , ninety , ninth , from Old English nigon, nine, with derivatives nigontig, ninety, and nigontēne, nineteen (-tēne, ten; see dekm̥ ), from Germanic *nigun, variant of *niwun.
November , novena ; nonagenarian , from Latin novem, nine (< *noven, with m for n by analogy with the m of septem, seven, and decem, ten).
Ordinal form *neweno‑. nona- , nones , noon ; nonagon , nonanoic acid , from Latin nōnus, ninth.
Prothetic or prefixed forms *h₁newn̥, *h₁nwn̥. ennead , enneagram , from Greek ennea, nine (< *ennewa, *enwa‑).

||[Pokorny e-neu̯en 318.]

r351_ ‌ ‌ newo-
New. Related to nu- .
Derivatives include neon , and nova.

Suffixed form *new-yo‑.
1. new , from Old English nēowe, nīwe, new;
2. Nynorsk , span-new , from Old Norse nȳr, new. Both a and b from Germanic *neuja‑.
Basic form *newo‑. neo- , neon , neoteric ; misoneism , from Greek newos, neos, new.
Suffixed form *new-aro‑. aneroid , from Greek nēron, water, from nēros, fresh (used of fish and of water), contracted from nearos, young, fresh.
Basic form *newo‑. nova , novation , novel ¹, novel ², novelty , novice , novillada , novillero ; innovate , renovate , ergonovine , from Latin novus, new.
Suffixed form *new-er-ko‑. novercal , from Latin noverca, stepmother (< "she who is new").

||[Pokorny neu̯os 769.]

r352_ ‌ ‌ nobh-
Also ombh-.
Navel; later also "central knob," boss of a shield, hub of a wheel. Oldest form *h₃nobh‑, variant *h₃ombh‑ (< *h₃onbh‑).

1. nave ², from Old English nafu, nafa, hub of a wheel;
2. auger , from Old English nafogār, auger, from Germanic compound *nabō-gaizaz, tool for piercing wheel hubs (*gaizaz, spear, piercing tool). Both a and b from Germanic *nabō.
Variant form *ombh‑. umbo , from Latin umbō, boss of a shield.
Suffixed form *nobh-alo‑. navel , from Old English nafela, navel, from Germanic *nabalō.
Suffixed variant form *ombh-alo‑.
1. umbilicus ; nombril , from Latin umbilīcus, navel;
2. omphalos , from Greek omphalos, navel.

||[Pokorny 1. (enebh‑) 314.]

r353_ ‌ ‌ nogh-
Also ongh-.
Nail, claw. Oldest forms *h₃nogh‑, *h₃ongh‑.

Suffixed (diminutive) form *nogh-elo‑. nail , from Old English nægl, nail, from Germanic *nagla‑.
Form *ənogh‑. onyx ; deinonychus , paronychia , perionychium , sardonyx , from Greek onux (stem onukh‑), nail.
Variant form *ongh‑. unguiculate , unguis , ungulate , from Latin unguis, nail, claw, hoof, with diminutive ungula, hoof, claw, talon (< *ongh-elā‑).

||[Pokorny onogh‑ 780.]

r354_ ‌ ‌ nog^w-
Naked.

Suffixed forms *nog^w-eto‑, *nog^w-oto‑. naked , from Old English nacod, naked, from Germanic *nakweda‑, *nakwada‑.
Suffixed form *nog^w-edo‑. nude , nudi- ; denude , from Latin nūdus, naked.
Suffixed form *nog^w-mo‑. gymnasium , gymnast ; gymnosophist , gymnosperm , from Greek gumnos, naked (with metathesis due to taboo deformation).
Suffixed form *nog^w-no‑. naan , from Old Persian *nagna‑, bare, naked.

||[Pokorny nog^u̯‑ 769.]

r355_ ‌ ‌ nō̆-men-
Name. Oldest form *h₁no(h₃)-mn̥, zero-grade form *h₁n̥(h₃)-men‑.

name , from Old English nama, name, from Germanic *namōn‑.
nominal , nominate , noun ; agnomen , anomia , binomial , cognomen , denominate , ignominy , misnomer , nomenclator , nuncupative , praenomen , pronoun , renown , from Latin nōmen, name, reputation.
onomastic , -onym , -onymy ; allonym , anonymous , antonomasia , eponym , eponymous , euonymus , heteronymous , homonymous , matronymic , metonymy , onomatopoeia , paronomasia , paronymous , patronymic , pseudonym , synonymous , from Greek onoma, onuma, name (assimilated from enuma, preserved in proper names in Laconian).
moniker , from Old Irish ainm, name.

||[Pokorny en(o)mn̥‑ 321.]

r356_ ‌ ‌ nu-
Now. Related to newo- .

now , from Old English nū, now.
quidnunc , from Latin nunc, now (< *nun-ce; -ce, a particle meaning "this," "here"; see ko- ).

||[Pokorny nu‑ 770.]

r357_ ‌ ‌ od-
To hate.

: annoy , ennui , noisome , odium , from Latin ōdī, I hate, and odium, hatred.

||[Pokorny 2. od‑ 773.]

r358_ ‌ ‌ oi-no-
One, unique.
Derivatives include once , atone , union , universe , and any.

Basic form *oi-no‑.
1. 1. a ¹, an ¹, once , one ; alone , anon , atone , lone , lonely , none , from Old English ān, one;
  2. eleven , from Old English endleofan, eleven, from Germanic compound *ain-lif‑, "one left (beyond ten)," eleven (*lif‑, left over; see leik^w- );
  3. einkorn , turnverein , from Old High German ein, one. a-c all from Germanic *ainaz.
2. uni- , union , unite , unity ; coadunate , triune , unanimous , unicorn , universe , from Latin ūnus, one.
3. indricothere , from Old Russian inŭ, one.
4. Latin nōn, not (< *ne-oinom, "not one thing"; see ne ).
Suffixed form *oino-ko‑.
1. any , from Old English ǣnig, one, anyone, from Germanic *ainigaz;
2. unique , from Latin ūnicus, sole, single;
3. inch ¹, ounce ¹, uncial ; quincunx , from Latin ūncia, one twelfth of a unit.
Suffixed form *oino-lo‑ in Latin ūllus (see ne ).

||[Pokorny 3. D. e‑ 281.]

r359_ ‌ ‌ oit-
To take along, fetch. Oldest form h₃eit‑, colored to h₃oit‑.

usage , use , usual , usurp , usury , utensil , utility , utilize ; abuse , peruse , from Latin ūtī, to use.
Suffixed form oit-to-. esophagus , from Greek ois‑, nominal stem and future tense stem corresponding to pherein, to carry, abstracted from verbal adjective oistos, able to be borne, endurable, from earlier *oit-to-s, carried, by regular phonological change.

||[Not in Pokorny. ]

r360_ ‌ ‌ oktō(u)
Eight. Oldest form *ok̑tō(u), becoming *oktō(u) in centum languages.

1. eight , eighteen , eighty , from Old English eahta, eight, with derivatives eahtatig, eighty, and eahtatēne, eighteen (-tēne, ten; see dekm̥ );
2. atto- , from Old Norse āttjān, eighteen (tjān, ten; see dekm̥ ). Both a and b from Germanic *ahtō.
Octans , octant , octave , octavo , octet , octo- , October , octonary ; octodecimo , octogenarian , from Latin octō, eight.
octad , octo- ; octopus , from Greek oktō, eight.

||[Pokorny ok̑tō(u) 775.]

r361_ ‌ ‌ ōku-
Swift. Oldest form *ōk̑u‑, becoming *ōku‑ in centum languages.

oxytocic , from Greek ōkus, swift.
Possibly altered zero-grade form *aku‑ in compound *aku-petro‑, "swift-flying" (*pet-ro‑, flying; see pet- ). accipiter , from Latin accipiter, hawk.

||[Pokorny ōk̑ú-s 775.]
See also ekwo- .

r362_ ‌ ‌ ok^w-
To see. Oldest form *h₃ek^w‑, colored to *h₃ok^w‑, zero-grade *h₃k^w‑.
Derivatives include eye , daisy , window , inoculate , and autopsy.

1. eye ; daisy , from Old English ēage, eye;
2. walleyed , window , from Old Norse auga, eye;
3. augen , from German Auge, eye;
4. ogle , from Low German oog, oge, eye. a-d all from Germanic *augōn‑ (with taboo deformation).
Suffixed form *ok^w-olo‑.
1. eyelet , ocellus , ocular , oculist , oculus , ullage ; antler , inoculate , monocle , oculomotor , pinochle , from Latin oculus, eye;
2. inveigle , from French aveugle, blind, from Gallo-Latin compound *ab-oculus, blind, calqued on Gaulish exs-ops, blind.
Form *ok^w-s. ceratopsian , metopic , myopia , nyctalopia , Pelops , phlogopite , prosopography , prosopopeia , pyrope , triceratops , from Greek ōps, eye (and stem *op‑, to see).
Suffixed form *ok^w-s‑. cushy , perhaps from Urdu khuš, good, from Persian khvaš, from Middle Persian xvašš, perhaps from Old Iranian *khvaxši‑, having a good appearance, from *axšši, eye (Avestan aši‑) (hu‑, x^w‑, good; see (e)su- ).
Suffixed form *ok^w-ti‑. opsin , -opsis , -opsy ; autopsy , dropsy , iodopsin , rhodopsin , synopsis , from Greek opsis, sight, appearance.
Suffixed form *ok^w-to‑. optic ; diopter , optoelectronics , optometry , panoptic , from Greek optos, seen, visible.
Suffixed form *ok^w-ā‑. metope , from Greek opē, opening.
Suffixed form *ok^w-mn̥. ommatidium , ommatophore , from Greek omma (< *opma), eye.
Suffixed form *ok^w-tro‑. catoptric , from Greek katoptron, "back-looker," mirror (kata‑, down, back; see kat- ).
ophthalmo- ; exophthalmos , from Greek ophthalmos, eye (with taboo deformation).
Zero-grade form *ək^w‑, in compounds (see ant- , āter- , ghwer- ).

||[Pokorny ok^u̯‑ 775.]

r363_ ‌ ‌ op-
To work, produce in abundance. Oldest form *h₃ep‑, colored to *h₃op‑.
Derivatives include opera ¹, maneuver , manure , opulent , and cornucopia.

Suffixed form *op-es‑. opera ¹, operate , operose , opus ; cooperate , inure , maneuver , manure , officinal , stover , from Latin opus (stem oper‑), work, with its denominative verb operārī, to work, and secondary noun opera, work.
Italic compound *opi-fici-om (see dhē- ).
Suffixed form *op-en-ent‑. opulent , from Latin dissimilated opulentus, rich, wealthy.
Suffixed form *op-ni‑. omni- , omnibus ; omnium-gatherum , from Latin omnis, all (< "abundant").
Suffixed (superlative) form *op-tamo‑. optimum , from Latin optimus, best (< "wealthiest").
copious , copy ; cornucopia , from Latin cōpia, profusion, plenty, from prefixed form *co-op‑ (co‑, collective and intensive prefix; see kom ).

||[Pokorny 1. op‑ 780.]

r364_ ‌ ‌ or-
Large bird. Oldest form *h₃er‑, colored to *h₃or‑.

Suffixed form *or-n‑. erne , from Old English earn, eagle, from Germanic *arnuz, eagle.
Suffixed form *or-n-īth‑. ornitho- ; aepyornis , notornis , from Greek ornīs (stem ornīth‑), bird.

||[Pokorny 1. er‑ 325.]

r365_ ‌ ‌ orbh-
To turn, with derivatives referring to change of change allegiance or status. Oldest form *h₃erbh‑, colored *h₃orbh‑. Suffixed form *orbh-o‑, "bereft of father," also "deprived of free status."

Suffixed form *orbh-o‑.
1. In words referring to the act of turning: Gastarbeiter , from Old High German arabeit(i), labor, from Germanic *arbaithi‑, perhaps from *orbo-iti‑, "a going of a turn," in reference to the repetitive nature of agricultural labor (*-iti‑, a going; see ei- );
2. In words referring to orphans and persons of reduced or changed status:
  1. orphan , from Greek orphanos, orphaned;
  2. robot , from Czech robota, compulsory labor, drudgery, from Old Church Slavonic rabota, servitude, from rabŭ, slave, from Old Slavic *orbŭ.
Suffixed form *orbh-i‑.
1. orb , orbicular , orbiculate , from Latin orbis, disc, sphere (< "that which turns");
2. Further suffixed form *orbh-i-t‑. orbit , from Latin orbita, rut, track made by a wheel.
Perhaps from this root is the Greek mythological name Orpheus (? < "he who goes to the other side" or "he who turns"). Orpheus , Orphic , Orphism .

||[Pokorny orbho‑ 781.]

r366_ ‌ ‌ ors-
Buttocks, backside.

Suffixed form *ors-o‑.
1. arse , ass ², from Old English ærs, ears, backside;
2. dodo , from Middle Dutch ærs, backside, tail. Both a and b from Germanic *arsaz.
Suffixed form *ors-ā‑.
1. uro- ², -urous ; anthurium , anuran , coenurus , cynosure , dasyurid , eremurus , ophiuroid , oxyuriasis , sciurid , squirrel , trichuriasis , from Greek ourā, tail;
2. silurid , from Greek silouros, sheatfish, probably from ourā, tail (with an obscure first element).

||[Pokorny ers‑ 340.]

r367_ ‌ ‌ ōs-
Mouth. Oldest form *h₃ōs‑, but precise preform uncertain.

oral , os ¹, oscillate , osculate , osculum , ostiary , ostium , usher ; inosculate , orifice , oronasal , orotund , oscitancy , peroral , from Latin ōs (stem ōr‑), mouth, face, orifice, and derivative ōstium (< suffixed form *ōs-to‑), door.
Auriga , from Latin aurīga, charioteer (< *ōr-īg‑ "he who manages the (horse's) bit";-īg‑ lengthened from ig‑ driving, from *ag‑; see ag- ) possibly from ōs- .

||[Pokorny 1. ōus‑ 784.]

r368_ ‌ ‌ ost-
Bone. Oldest form *h₂ost‑, with e-grade *h₂est‑ colored to *h₂ast‑.

os ², osseous , ossicle , ossuary ; ossifrage , ossify , from Latin os (stem oss‑), bone.
osteo- , osteon ; endosteum , exostosis , periosteum , synostosis , teleost , from Greek osteon, bone.
Suffixed form *ost-r‑.
1. ostracize , ostracod , ostracon ; ostracoderm , periostracum , from Greek ostrakon, shell, potsherd;
2. e-grade form *əest‑, becoming *ast‑. oyster , from Greek ostreon, oyster;
3. astragal , astragalus , from Greek astragalos, vertebra, ball of the ankle joint, knucklebone, Ionic molding.
Suffixed form *ost-n̥-ko‑. astaxanthin , from Greek ostakos, astakos, lobster.

||[Pokorny ost(h)‑ 783.]

r369_ ‌ ‌ ous-
Also aus-.
Ear. Oldest form *h₂ous‑, with e-grade *h₂eus‑ colored to *h₂aus‑.

Suffixed form *ous-en‑. ear ¹, from Old English ēare, ear, from Germanic *auzōn‑.
Suffixed form *aus-i‑. aural ¹, auricle , orecchiette ; auriform , ormer , from Latin auris, ear.
auscultation , scout ¹, from Latin auscultāre, to listen to (< *aus-klit-ā‑; *aus‑ + *kli-to‑, inclined; see klei- ).
Suffixed basic form *ous-os‑. otic , oto- ; myosotis , parotid gland , from Greek ous (stem ōt‑), ear.
Basic form *ous‑ in Greek compound *lag-ous‑ (see slēg- ).

||[Pokorny 2. ōus‑ 785.]

r370_ ‌ ‌ owi-
Sheep. Oldest form *h₂owi‑.

ewe , from Old English ēwe, eōwu, ewe, from Germanic *awi‑.
ovine , from Latin ovis, sheep.

||[Pokorny óu̯i-s 784.]

r371_ ‌ ‌ pā-
To protect, feed. Oldest form *peh₂‑, colored to *pah₂‑, becoming *pā‑.
Derivatives include fodder , forage , fur , food , foster , pasture , pantry , and company.

Suffixed form *pā-trom.
1. fodder , from Old English fōdor, fodder;
2. forage , foray , fourragère , from Old French feurre, fodder;
3. fur , furrier , from Old French forre, fuerre, trimming made from animal skin, fur (< "sheath, case, lining"). a-c all from Germanic *fōdram.
Suffixed form *pā-dhlom (doublet of *pā-trom) pabulum , from Latin pābulum, food, fodder.
Extended form *pāt‑.
1. food , from Old English fōda, food, from Germanic *fōd‑, food;
2. feed , from Old English fēdan, to feed, from Germanic denominative *fōdjan, to give food to;
3. suffixed form *pāt-tro‑. foster , from Old English fōstor, food, nourishment, from Germanic *fōstra‑.
Extended form *pās‑.
1. Suffixed form *pās-sko‑. pasture ; antipasto , repast , from Latin pāscere, to feed;
2. suffixed form *pās-tor‑. pastern , pastor , pester , from Latin pāstor, shepherd;
3. suffixed form *pās-t-ni‑. panada , panatela , panic grass , pannier , panocha , pantry , pastille , penuche ; appanage , companion ¹, company , panforte , panko , from Latin pānis, bread.
Suffixed form *pā-tor‑. bezoar , from Persian pād, protecting against, from Iranian *pātar‑ (Avestan pātar‑).
Suffixed form *pā-won‑, protector. satrap , from Old Persian khshathra-pāvā, protector of the province.

||[Pokorny pā‑ 787, 1. pō(i)‑ 839.]

r372_ ‌ ‌ paəwr̥
Fire. Oldest form *peh₂wr̥, colored to *pah₂wr̥, with zero-grade *ph₂ur‑ metathesized to *puh₂r‑. Zero-grade form *pūr‑ (from *puh₂r‑).

fire , from Old English fȳr, fire, from Germanic suffixed form *fūr-i‑.
pyre , pyretic , pyrites , pyro- , pyrosis , pyrrhotite ; ekpyrotic , empyreal , from Greek pūr, fire.

||[Pokorny peu̯ōr 828.]

r373_ ‌ ‌ pag-
Also pak-.
To fasten. Oldest forms *pag̑‑, *pak̑‑, becoming *pag‑, *pak‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include fang , peace , pact , palisade , and travel.

Lengthened-grade form *pāk‑. fay ¹, from Old English fēgan, to fit closely, from Germanic *fōgjan, to join, fit.
Nasalized form *pa-n-g‑, also *pa-n-k‑.
1. 1. fang , from Old English fang, feng, plunder, booty, from Germanic *fangam, *fangiz;
  2. vang , from Dutch vangen, to catch, from remade Germanic verb *fangan;
  3. newfangled , from Middle English *-fangel, taken, akin to Old High German -fangolon, to close, from Germanic *fanglōn, to grasp. (i)-(iii) all derivatives of Germanic *fanhan, to seize.
2. compact ¹, impact , impinge , spinto , from Latin pangere, to fasten.
Root form *pā̆k‑.
1. pace ², pax , pay ¹, peace ; appease , pacific , pacify , from Latin pāx, peace (< "a binding together by treaty or agreement");
2. pact , patio , from Latin pacīscī, to agree.
Suffixed form *pak-slo‑.
1. pale ¹, palisade , pawl , peel ³, pole ²; impale , travail , travel , from Latin pālus, stake (fixed in the ground);
2. probably Latin pāla, spade palette , peel ².
Lengthened-grade form *pāg‑.
1. pagan , peasant , from Latin pāgus, "boundary staked out on the ground," district, village, country;
2. page ¹, pageant , from Latin pāgina, "trellis to which a row of vines is fixed," hence (by metaphor) column of writing, page;
3. propagate , from Latin prōpāgāre, to propagate (< "to fix before"; prō‑, before, in front; see per ¹);
4. pectin , pegmatite ; Areopagus , mastopexy , from Greek pēgnunai, to fasten, coagulate, with derivative pagos (< *pag-o‑), mass, hill.

||[Pokorny pā̆k̑‑ 787.]

r374_ ‌ ‌ pāl-
To touch, feel, shake. Earlier *peh₂l‑, colored to *pah₂l‑, becoming *pāl‑.

1. feel , from Old English fēlan, to examine by touch, feel;
2. sprachgefühl , from Old High German vuolen, to feel. Both a and b from Germanic *fōljan, to feel.
Reduplicated zero-grade form *pal-p‑ (from *pəl-p(ə)‑.
1. palp , from Latin palpus, a touching;
2. palpable , palpate ¹, palpitate , from Latin palpārī, palpāre, to stroke gently, touch;
3. palpebra , from Latin palpebra, eyelid (< "that which shakes or moves quickly").
Perhaps expressive reduplicated form *pal-pal‑. papilionaceous , papillon , papillote , pavilion , from Latin pāpiliō, butterfly.
Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *pal-yo‑. catapult , from Greek pallein, to sway, brandish.
Perhaps suffixed form *psal-yo‑. psalm , psaltery , from Greek psallein, to pluck, play the harp (but more likely of imitative origin).

||[Pokorny 1. G. pel‑ 801, polo‑ 841.]

r375_ ‌ ‌ pan-
Fabric.

1. vane , from Old English fana, flag, banner, weathercock;
2. Germanic compound *gund-fanōn‑ (see g^when- ). Both a and b from Germanic *fanōn.
Extended form *panno‑. pane , panel ; panna cotta , from Latin pannus, piece of cloth, rag.

||[Pokorny pā̆n‑ 788.]

r376_ ‌ ‌ pant-
All. Attested only in Tocharian and Greek.

: pan- ; diapason , pancratium , pancreas , from Greek pās (neuter pan, stem pant‑), all.

|| ||[Pokorny 1. k̑eu‑ 592.]

r377_ ‌ ‌ papa
A child's word for "father," a linguistic near-universal found in many languages.

papa , from French papa, father.
pappus , pope , from Greek pappās, father, and pappos, grandfather.

||[Pokorny pap(p)a 789.]

r378_ ‌ ‌ past-
Solid, firm.

1. fast ¹; shamefaced , steadfast , from Old English fæst, fixed, firm;
2. avast , from Middle Dutch vast, firm, fast. Both a and b from Germanic *fastuz, firm, fast.
fasten , from Old English fæstnian, to fasten, establish, from Germanic *fastinōn, to make firm or fast.
handfast , from Old Norse festa, to fix, affirm, from Germanic causative *fastjan, to make firm.
1. fast ², from Old English fæstan, to abstain from food;
2. breakfast , from Old Norse fasta, to abstain from food. Both a and b from Germanic *fastēn, to hold fast, observe abstinence.

||[Pokorny pasto‑ 789.]

r379_ ‌ ‌ pau-¹
Few, little. Oldest form *peh₂u‑, colored to *pah₂u‑.
Derivatives include few , pauper , foal , pony , and pullet.

Adjectival form *pau‑, few, little.
1. few , from Old English fēawe, few, from Germanic *fawaz.
2. Suffixed form *pau-ko‑. paucity , poco , from Latin paucus, little, few.
3. Suffixed form *pau-ro‑ in metathetical form *par-wo‑. paraffin , parvorder , parvovirus , from Latin parvus, little, small, neuter parvum, becoming parum, little, rarely.
4. Compound *pau-paros, producing little, poor (*par-os, producing; see perə- ¹). pauper , poor , poverty ; depauperate , impoverish , from Latin pauper, poor.
Suffixed zero-grade form *pu-lo‑, young of an animal.
1. foal , from Old English fola, young horse, colt, from Germanic *fulōn‑.
2. filly , from Old Norse fylja, young female horse, from Germanic derivative *fuljō.
Basic form *pau‑ and zero-grade form *pū̆‑, boy, child.
1. Suffixed form *pu-ero‑. puerile , puerperal , from Latin puer, child.
2. Extended form *put‑.
  1. poltroon , pony , pool ², poulard , poulter's measure , poultry , pullet , Punchinello ; catchpole , from Latin pullus (< *putslo‑), young of an animal, chicken;
  2. pusillanimous , from Latin pusillus (< *putslo-lo‑), old diminutive of pullus;
  3. further suffixed form *put-o‑. putto , from Latin putus, boy.
3. Suffixed form *paw-id‑. pedo- ²; encyclopedia , orthopedics , from Greek pais (stem paid‑), child (> paideia, education).

||[Pokorny pōu‑ 842.]

r380_ ‌ ‌ pau-²
To cut, strike, stamp. Oldest form *peh₂u‑, colored to *pah₂u‑.

Suffixed (participial) zero-grade form *pu-to‑, cut, struck.
1. putamen , putative ; account , amputate , compute , count ¹, depute , dispute , impute , repute , from Latin putāre, to prune, clean, settle an account, think over, reflect;
2. possibly Latin puteus, well pit ¹.
Basic form *pau‑.
1. Suffixed form *pau-yo. pave , pavé , from Latin pavīre, to beat;
2. suffixed (stative) form *paw-ē‑. pavid , from Latin pavēre, to fear (< "to be struck");
3. perhaps Greek paiein, to beat anapest .

||[Pokorny 3. pēu‑ 827.]

r381_ ‌ ‌ ped-
Foot.
Derivatives include foot , fetter , pioneer , millipede , impeach , pajamas , fetch ¹, pessimism , and impeccable.

Nominal root.
1. Lengthened o-grade form *pōd‑.
  1. foot , from Old English fōt, foot.
  2. foosball , from Old High German fuoz, foot. Both a and b from Germanic *fōt‑.
2. Suffixed form *ped-ero‑. fetter , from Old English fetor, feter, leg iron, fetter, from Germanic *feterō.
3. Suffixed form *ped-el‑. fetlock , from Middle English fitlock, fetlock, fetlock, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German vizzelach, fetlock, from Germanic *fetel‑.
4. Basic form *ped‑. pawn ², -ped , pedal , pedate , pedestrian , pedi- , pedicel , peduncle , peon , pes , pioneer ; millipede , sesquipedal , tripedal , trivet , vamp ¹, from Latin pēs (stem ped‑), foot.
5. Suffixed form *ped-yo‑.
  1. expedite , from Latin expedīre, to free from a snare (ex‑, out of; see eghs );
  2. impede , from Latin impedīre, "to put in fetters, hobble, shackle," entangle, hinder (in‑, in; see en ).
6. Suffixed form *ped-ikā‑. impeach , from Latin pedica, fetter, snare.
7. O-grade form *pod‑.
  1. pew , -pod , podium ; antipodes , apodal , appoggiatura , Apus , chenopod , lycopodium , macropod , monopodium , octopus , Oedipus , pelecypod , phalarope , platypus , podagra , podiatry , podophyllin , polyp , polypod , rhizopus , sympodium , xenopus , from Greek pous (stem pod‑), foot;
  2. podzol , from Russian pod, under.
8. Suffixed form *ped-ya. trapezium , from Greek peza, foot.
9. Suffixed form *ped-o‑.
  1. pedo- ¹, pedon ; parallelepiped , from Greek pedon, ground, soil;
  2. pada , paisa , pice , pie ³, pug ³, from Sanskrit padam, footstep, foot, and pāt, foot;
  3. charpoy , pajama , teapoy , from Middle Persian pāī, leg, foot;
  4. lengthened-grade form *pēd-o‑.
    1. pilot , from Greek pēdon, rudder, steering oar;
    2. diapedesis , from Greek pēdān, to leap.
10. Suffixed form ped-ī‑. cypripedium , from Greek pedilon, sandal.
Verbal root *ped‑, to walk, stumble, fall.
1. fetch ¹, from Old English fetian, feccean, to bring back, from Germanic *fetēn.
2. 1. Suffixed (comparative) form *ped-yos‑. pejoration ; impair , from Latin pēior, worse (< "stumbling");
  2. suffixed (superlative) form *ped-samo‑. pessimism , from Latin pessimus, worst;
  3. suffixed form *ped-ko‑. peccadillo , peccant , peccavi ; impeccable , from Latin peccāre, to stumble, sin. a-c all from Latin *ped‑.

||[Pokorny 2. pē̆d‑ 790.]

r382_ ‌ ‌ pē(i)-
Also pē‑, pī-.
To hurt. Contracted from *peə₁(i)‑; zero-grades *piə₁‑,*pə₁‑.

Suffixed (participial) form *pī-ont‑ (< *piə-ont‑) fiend , from Old English fēond, fīond, enemy, devil, from Germanic *fījand‑, hating, hostile.
Possibly *pē‑ in suffixed zero-grade form *pə-to‑. passible , passion , passive , patient ; compassion , from Latin patī, to suffer.

||[Pokorny pē(i)‑ 792.]

r383_ ‌ ‌ peiə-
To be fat, swell.
Derivatives include fat , pituitary , and Irish.

Zero-grade form *pī‑ (contracted from *piə‑).
1. Possibly suffixed form *pī-tu‑. pip ⁵, pituitary , from Latin pītuīta, moisture exuded from trees, gum, phlegm.
2. Possibly suffixed form *pī-nu‑. pine ¹, pineal , pinnace , piñon , Pinot ; piña cloth , from Latin pīnus, pine tree (yielding a resin).
3. Suffixed form *pī-won‑. propionic acid , from Greek pīōn, fat.
4. Suffixed form *pī-wer‑, "fat, fertile."
  1. Erse , Irish , from Old English Īras, the Irish, from *Īwer-iū, the prehistoric Celtic name for Ireland;
  2. Pierian Spring , from Greek Pīeriā, a region ofMacedonia, from *Pīwer-iā‑.
Extended o-grade form *poid‑. fat , from Old English fǣt(t), fat, from Germanic past participle *faitidaz, fattened, from derivative verb *faitjan, to fatten, from *faitaz, plump, fat.

||[Pokorny pei̯(ə)‑ 793.]

r384_ ‌ ‌ peig-
Also peik-.
(earlier *peik̑‑, remaining as such in satem languages). To cut, mark (by incision).

Alternate form *peik‑. file ², from Old English fīl, file, from Germanic *fīhala, cutting tool.
Nasalized zero-grade form *pi-n-g‑. paint , Pictor , picture , picturesque , pigment , pimento , pint , pinto ; depict , pictograph , from Latin pingere, to embroider, tattoo, paint, picture.
Suffixed zero-grade form *pik-ro‑. picro- , from Greek pikros, sharp, bitter.
O-grade form *poik‑. poikilotherm , from Greek poikilos, spotted, pied, various.

||[Pokorny 1. peig‑ 794.]

r385_ ‌ ‌ peku-
Wealth, movable property. Oldest form *pek̑u‑, becoming *peku‑ in centum languages.

1. fellow , from Old Norse fē, property, cattle;
2. fee , fief ; enfeoff , feoffment , from Old French fie, fief, and Old English feoh, cattle, goods, money;
3. feud ², from Medieval Latin feudum, feudal estate. a-c all from Germanic *fehu‑.
pecorino , from Latin pecus, cattle.
Suffixed form *peku-n‑. pecuniary ; impecunious , from Latin pecūnia, property, wealth.
Suffixed form *peku-l‑. peculate , peculiar , from Latin pecūlium, riches in cattle, private property.

|| ||[Pokorny 2. pek̑‑ 797.]

r386_ ‌ ‌ pek^w-
To cook, ripen.

Assimilated form (in Italic and Celtic) *k^wek^w‑.
1. cook , cuisine , kitchen , quittor ; apricot , biscotto , biscuit , charcuterie , concoct , decoct , precocious , ricotta , sancocho , terra cotta , from Latin coquere, to cook;
2. culinary , kiln , from Latin culīna, kitchen, deformed from coquīna.
pepo ; pumpkin , from Greek pepōn, ripe.
peptic , peptize ; drupe , eupeptic , pepsin , peptone , from Greek peptein, to cook, ripen, digest (> peptos, cooked).
dyspepsia , from Greek -pepsiā, digestion.
pukka ; pakora , from Sanskrit pakva‑, ripe.
ceviche ; escabeche , from Old Iranian *-pāka‑, cooked (Avestan -pāka‑).

||[Pokorny pek^u̯‑ 798.]

r387_ ‌ ‌ pel-¹
Pale.
Derivatives include pallor , falcon , and poliomyelitis.

Suffixed variant form *pal-wo‑.
1. 1. fallow deer , from Old English fealu, fealo, reddish yellow;
  2. fauvism , from Frankish *falw‑, reddish-yellow. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *falwaz.
2. pale ², pallid , pallidum , pallor ; appall , from Latin pallēre, to be pale;
3. palomino , from Latin palumbēs (influenced in form by Latin columbus, dove), ringdove, "gray-bird.".
Probably suffixed form *pel-ko‑. falcon ; gyrfalcon , from Late Latin falcō, falcon, from Germanic *falkōn‑, falcon (< "gray bird"; but this is also possibly from the Late Latin).
Suffixed extended form *peli-wo‑.
1. Pelops , from Greek pelios, dark;
2. o-grade form *poli-wo‑. poliomyelitis , from Greek polios, gray.
Perhaps Greek pelargos, stork (< *pelawo-argos, "black-white bird"; argos, white; see arg- ) pelargonium .

||[Pokorny 6. pel‑ 804.]

r388_ ‌ ‌ pel-²
To fold.

Extended o-grade form *polt‑.
1. fold ¹, from Old English fealdan, faldan, to fold;
2. faltboat , from Old High German faldan, to fold;
3. furbelow , from Italian falda, fold, flap, pleat;
4. 1. faldstool , from Medieval Latin compound faldistolium, folding chair;
  2. fauteuil , from Old French faldestoel, faldstool. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *faldistōlaz, "folding stool" (*stōlaz, stool; see stā- ).
5. -fold , from Old English -feald, -fald, -fold, from Germanic combining form *-falthaz, *-faldaz. a-e all from Germanic *falthan, *faldan.
Combining form *-plo‑.
1. decuple , multiple , octuple , quadruple , quintuple , septuple , sextuple , triple , from Latin -plus, -fold (as in triplus, threefold);
2. -ploid ; triploblastic , from Greek -plos, -ploos, -fold (as in haploos, haplous, single, and triploos, triple).

||[Pokorny 3a. pel‑ 802.]

r389_ ‌ ‌ pel-³
Skin, hide.

Suffixed form *pel-no‑. fell ³, from Old English fell, skin, hide, from Germanic *felnam.
film , from Old English filmen, membrane, from Germanic suffixed form *fel-man-ja‑.
Suffixed form *pel-ni‑. pelisse , pellicle , pelt ¹, peltry , pillion ; pellagra , surplice , from Latin pellis, skin.
erysipelas , from Greek -pelas, skin.
Suffixed form *pel-to‑. peltate , from Greek peltē, a shield (made of hide).

||[Pokorny 3b. pel‑ 803.]

r390_ ‌ ‌ pel-⁴
To sell.

: Lengthened o-grade form *pōl‑. bibliopole , monopoly , from Greek pōlein, to sell.

||[Pokorny 5. pel‑ 804.]

r391_ ‌ ‌ pel-⁵
To thrust, strike, drive.
Derivatives include anvil , filter , pulsate , polish , and appeal.

Suffixed form *pel-de‑.
1. 1. anvil , from Old English anfilt(e), anfealt, anvil ("something beaten on");
  2. 1. felt ¹, from Old English felt, felt;
    2. filter , filtrate , from Medieval Latin filtrum, filter, piece of felt. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *feltaz, *filtiz, compressed wool. Both a and b from Germanic *felt‑, *falt‑, to beat.
2. pelt ², poussette , pulsate , pulse ¹, push ; compel , dispel , expel , impel , impulse , propel , repel , from Latin pellere (past participle pulsus), to push, drive, strike.
3. 1. Suffixed o-grade form *pol-o‑, fuller of cloth. polish , from Latin polīre, to make smooth, polish (< "to full cloth");
  2. suffixed o-grade form *pol-o‑ (with different accentuation from the preceding), fulled (of cloth) interpolate , from Latin compound adjective interpolis (also interpolus), refurbished (inter‑, between; see en ).
Extended form *pelə₂‑.
1. Present stem *pelnā‑.
  1. appeal , peal , rappel , repeal , from Latin appellāre, "to drive to," address, entreat, appeal, call (ad‑, to; see ad- );
  2. compellation , from Latin compellāre, to accost, address (com‑, intensive prefix; see kom ).
2. Possible suffixed zero-grade extended adverbial form *pl̥ə-ti‑, or locative plural *pl̥ə-si. plesiomorphy , plesiosaur , from Greek plēsios, near (< "pushed toward"), from pre-Greek *plāti or *plāsi.

||[Pokorny 2a. pel‑ 801.]

r392_ ‌ ‌ pelə-¹
To fill; with derivatives referring to abundance and multitude. Oldest form *pelh₁‑; variant *pleh₁‑, becoming *plē‑.
Derivatives include fill , plenty , folk , accomplish , expletive , and plebeian.

Zero-grade form *pl̥ə‑.
1. Suffixed form *pl̥ə-no‑. full ¹, from Old English full, full, from Germanic *fulnaz, *fullaz, full.
2. fill , from Old English fyllan, to fill (from Germanic derivative verb *fulljan, to fill), and fyllu, full amount (from Germanic abstract noun *full-īnō‑, fullness).
3. gefilte fish , from Old High German fullen, to fill, from Germanic derivative verb *fulljan, from *fulla‑, full (see 1 above).
4. plenary , plenitude , plenty , plenum ; plenipotentiary , replenish , terreplein , from Latin plēnus, full, from Latin stem *plēno‑, replacing *plāno‑ (influenced by Latin verb plēre, to fill; see IV. 1. below).
5. Suffixed form *pl̥ə-go‑.
  1. folk , from Old English folc, people;
  2. Herrenvolk , volkslied , from Old High German folc, people. Both a and b from Germanic *folkam.
Suffixed form *p(e)lə-u‑.
1. Obscure comparative form. più , plural , plus ; nonplus , pluperfect , surplus , from Latin plūs, more (Archaic Latin plous). See also IV. 5. below.
2. O-grade form *pol(ə)-u‑. poly- ; hoi polloi , from Greek polus, much, many.
3. Possibly from this root (but probably rather from pel- ¹) is Latin palūs, marsh (? < "inundated"): paludal , palustrine .
Suffixed form *p(e)lə-o‑. Latin compound manipulus (see man- ²).
Variant form *plē‑.
1. accomplish , complete , compliment , comply , deplete , expletive , implement , replete , supply , from Latin plēre, to fill.
2. Possibly suffixed form *plē-dhw‑. plebe , plebeian , plebs ; plebiscite , from Latin plēbs, plēbēs, the people, multitude.
3. Suffixed form *plē-dhwo‑. plethora ; plethysmograph , from Greek derivative verb plēthein, to be full.
4. Suffixed adjective (positive) form *plē-ro‑. plerocercoid , from Greek plērēs, full.
5. Suffixed (comparative) form *plē-i(s)on‑. pleo- , pleonasm ; pleiotropy , Pliocene , from Greek pleōn, pleiōn, more.
6. Suffixed (superlative) form *plē-isto‑. Pleistocene , from Greek pleistos, most.
Possibly Sanskrit pūraḥ, cake (< "that which fills or satisfies"): poori .

||[Pokorny 1. pel‑ 798.]

r393_ ‌ ‌ pelə-²
Flat; to spread. Oldest form *pelh₂‑; variant *pleh₂‑, colored to *plah₂‑, becoming *plā‑.
Derivatives include field , planet , plasma , plastic , and polka.

Suffixed form *pel(ə)-tu‑. field , from Old English feld, open field, from Germanic *felthuz, flat land.
Suffixed form *pel(ə)-t-es‑ (by-form of *pel(ə)-tu‑).
1. feldspar , from Old High German feld, field;
2. veld , from Middle Dutch veld, velt, field. Both a and b from Germanic *feltha‑, flat land.
Variant form *plā‑.
1. Suffixed form *plā-ru‑. floor , from Old English flōr, floor, from Germanic *flōruz, floor;
2. suffixed form *plā-no‑. llano , piano ², plain , planarian , plane ¹, plane ², plane ³, planish , plano- , planula ; esplanade , explain , pianoforte , from Latin plānus, flat, level, even, plain, clear.
Suffixed zero-grade form *pl̥ə-mā‑. palm ¹, palm ², palmary , palmier , from Latin palma (< *palama), palm of the hand.
Possibly extended variant form *plan‑.
1. planet ; aplanatic , from Greek planāsthai, to wander (< "to spread out");
2. perhaps Germanic *flan‑. flâneur , from French flâner, to walk the streets idly, from a source akin to Old Norse flana, to wander aimlessly.
Suffixed zero-grade form *plə-dh‑. -plasia , plasma , -plast , plaster , plastic , plastid , -plasty ; dysplasia , metaplasm , toxoplasma , from Greek plassein (< *plath-yein), to mold, "spread out.".
O-grade form *polə‑.
1. polynya , from Russian polyĭ, open;
2. Polack , polka , from Slavic *polje, broad flat land, field.

||[Pokorny pelə‑ 805.]
See also extensions plāk- ¹, plat- .

r394_ ‌ ‌ pelə-³
Citadel, fortified high place. Oldest form perhaps *pelh₃‑ (but exact laryngeal uncertain). Zero-grade form *pl̥h₃‑.

police , policy ¹, polis , politic , polity ; acropolis , cosmopolis , cosmopolite , megalopolis , metropolis , necropolis , policlinic , propolis , from Greek polis, city (phonological development unclear).
gopuram , from Sanskrit pūr, pur‑, fortress.

|| ||[Pokorny 1. pel‑ 798.]

r395_ ‌ ‌ penk^we
Five.
Derivatives include five , Pentecost , quintessence , finger , and foist.

Basic form *penk^we.
1. Assimilated form *pempe.
  1. 1. five ; fifty , from Old English fīf, five, with derivative fīftig, fifty (-tēne, ten; see dekm̥ );
    2. fin ², from Old High German finf, funf, five. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *fimf.
  2. 1. fifteen , from Old English fīftēne, fifteen;
    2. femto- , from Old Norse fimmtān, fifteen. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *fimftehun, fifteen (*tehun, ten; see dekm̥ ).
2. Assimilated form *k^wenk^we.
  1. cinquain , cinque , quinque- ; cinquecento , cinquefoil , quincunx , from Latin quīnque, five;
  2. keno , quinate , from Latin distributive quīnī, five each;
  3. quinceañera , quindecennial , from Latin compound quīndecim, fifteen (decem, ten; see dekm̥ );
  4. quincentenary , from Latin quīngentī, five hundred.
3. penta- , pentad ; penstemon , pentagon , pentameter , pentathlon , from Greek pente, five.
4. punch ³; pachisi , from Sanskrit pañca, five.
Compound *penk^we-(d)konta, "five tens," fifty (*-(d)konta, group of ten; see dekm̥ ).
1. quinquagenarian , Quinquagesima , from Latin quīnquāgintā, fifty.
2. Pentecost , pinxter flower , from Greek pentēkonta, fifty.
Ordinal adjective *penk^w-to‑.
1. fifth , from Old English fīfta, fifth, from Germanic *fimftōn‑.
2. quint ¹, quintain , quintet , quintile ; quintessence , quintillion , quintuple , from Latin quīntus (< *quinc-tos), feminine quīnta, fifth.
Suffixed form *penk^w-ro‑. finger , from Old English finger, finger, from Germanic *fingwraz, finger (< "one of five").
Suffixed reduced zero-grade form *pn̥k-sti‑.
1. fist , from Old English fȳst, fist;
2. foist , from Dutch vuist, fist. Both a and b from Germanic *funhstiz.

||[Pokorny penk^u̯e 808, pn̥ksti‑ 839.]

r396_ ‌ ‌ pent-
To tread, go.
Derivatives include find , pontiff , and sputnik.

find , from Old English findan, to find, from Germanic *finthan, to come upon, discover.
Suffixed o-grade form *pont-i‑.
1. pons , pontifex , pontiff , pontine , pontoon , punt ¹; osteopontin , transpontine , from Latin pōns (stem pont‑), bridge (earliest meaning, "way, passage," preserved in the priestly title pontifex, "he who prepares the way"; -fex, maker; see dhē- );
2. sputnik , from Russian sputnik, fellow traveler, sputnik, from put', path, way.
Zero-grade form *pn̥t‑. peripatetic , from Greek patein, to tread, walk.
Suffixed zero-grade form *pn̥t-ə‑.
1. path , from Old English pæth, path;
2. pad ²; footpad ¹, from Middle Dutch pad, way, path. Both a and b from Germanic *patha‑, way, path, probably borrowed (? via Scythian) from Iranian *path‑.

||[Pokorny pent‑ 808.]

r397_ ‌ ‌ per¹
Base of prepositions and preverbs with the basic meanings of "forward," "through," and a wide range of extended senses such as "in front of," "before," "early," "first," "chief," "toward," "against," "near," "at," "around."
Derivatives include far , paradise , afford , first , protein , veneer , probe , privy , pristine , and priest.

Basic form *per and extended form *peri.
1. 1. turnverein , from Middle High German vereinen, to unite, from Old High German far‑;
  2. farklempt , from Yiddish farklemmen, to clamp, choke up, from Middle High German verklemmen, from Old High German far‑;
  3. veer ², from Middle Dutch vieren, to let out, slacken;
  4. Germanic compound *fer-getan (see ghend- );
  5. frump , from Middle Dutch verrompelen, to wrinkle. a-d all from Germanic *fer‑, *far‑, used chiefly as an intensive prefix denoting destruction, reversal, or completion.
2. Suffixed (comparative) form *per-ero‑, farther away. far , from Old English feor(r), far, from Germanic *fer(e)ra.
3. per , per- ; paramount , paramour , parget , parterre , parvenu , from Latin per, through, for, by.
4. peri- ; perissodactyl , from Greek peri, around, near, beyond.
5. 1. pantoum , puggree , from Sanskrit pari‑, couch;
  2. paradise , from Avestan pairi‑, around;
  3. bard ², purdah , from Old Persian pari, around, over;
  4. Old Iranian compound *pari-vāraka‑ (see wer- ⁴). a-d all from Indo-Iranian *pari‑, around.
6. perestroika , from Old Russian pere‑, around, again, from Slavic *per‑.
Zero-grade form *pr̥‑.
1. 1. for , from Old English for, before, instead of, on account of;
  2. for- , from Old English for‑, prefix denoting destruction, pejoration, exclusion, or completion. Both a and b from Germanic *fur, before, in.
2. Extended form *pr̥t‑. forth ; afford , from Old English forth, from Germanic *furth‑, forward.
3. Suffixed (comparative) form *pr̥-tero‑. further , from Old English furthra, furthor, farther away, from Germanic *furthera‑.
4. 1. Compound *pr̥-st-i‑ or *por-st-i‑, with o-grade form *por‑ (see stā- );
  2. porrect , from Latin por‑, forth, forward. Both a and b from Latin por‑ from *pr̥‑.
5. Suffixed form *pr̥-sōd. parget , from Latin porrō, forward.
Extended zero-grade form *pr̥ə‑.
1. Suffixed (superlative) form *pr̥ə-mo‑.
  1. former ², from Old English forma, first, from Germanic *fruma‑, *furma‑;
  2. foremost , from Old English formest, first, from Germanic *frumista‑, *furmista‑;
  3. Latin compound prandium, "first meal," late breakfast, lunch (probably < *prām-d-ium < *pr̥əm-(e)d-yo‑; second element *-(e)d‑, to eat; see ed- ).
2. Suffixed (superlative) form *pr̥ə-isto‑. first , from Old English fyrst, fyrest, first, from Germanic *furista‑, foremost.
3. Suffixed form *pr̥ə-wo‑.
  1. prow , from Greek prōira, forward part of a ship, from analogically suffixed form *prōw-arya;
  2. protein , protist , proto- , proton , from Greek prōtos, first, foremost, from suffixed (superlative) form *prōw-ato‑. Both a and b from Greek *prōwo‑, first, foremost.
4. Suffixed form *pr̥ə-i. arpent , from Latin arepennis, half-acre (second element obscure), from Gaulish ari (combining form are‑), before, from Celtic *(p)ari, *are.
Extended form *pr̥əā̆.
1. 1. fore , fore- ; forefather , from Old English fore, for, before;
  2. vorlage , from Old High German fora, before;
  3. before , from Old English beforan, before, from Germanic prefixed and suffixed form *bi-fora-na, in the front (*bi‑, at, by; see ambhi ). a-c all from Germanic *fura, before.
2. para- ¹; palfrey , from Greek para, beside, alongside of, beyond.
3. Purana , from Sanskrit purā, before.
Extended form *prō̆.
1. 1. frae , fro ; froward , from Old Norse frā, from, from Germanic *fra, forward, away from;
  2. Germanic *fra‑, completely, in compounds (see ed- , aik- ).
2. Suffixed form *prō̆-mo‑.
  1. frame , from , from Old English fram, forward, from, from Germanic *fram, from;
  2. furnish , furniture , veneer , from Old French f(o)urnir, to supply, provide, from Germanic derivative verb *frumjan, to further, from Germanic *frum, forward;
  3. pram ², from Czech prám, raft.
3. Suffixed form *prō-wo‑.
  1. 1. Frau , Fräulein , from Old High German frouwa, lady;
    2. Freya , from Old Norse freyja, lady. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *frōwō‑, lady, lengthened-grade feminine of *frawan‑; lord.
  2. Frey , from Old Norse Freyr, from Germanic *frawa‑, alteration of *frawan‑. lord;
  3. form *prō-wo‑, independently created in Slavic. naprapathy , from Old Church Slavonic pravŭ, true.
4. pride , pro ¹, pro- ¹, prodigality , proud , prowess ; improve , purchase , from Latin prō, prō̆‑, before, for, instead of.
5. Suffixed form *prō-no‑. prone , from Latin prōnus, leaning forward.
6. Possible suffixed form *pro-ko‑. reciprocal , from Latin compound reciprocus, alternating, "backward and forward" (*re-ko‑, backward; see re- ).
7. Suffixed adverb *pro-k^we.
  1. approach , rapprochement , reproach , from Latin prope, near;
  2. suffixed form *prok^w-ink^wo‑. propinquity , from Latin propinquus, near;
  3. suffixed (superlative) form *prok^w-isamo‑. proximate ; approximate , from Latin proximus, nearest.
8. Compound *pro-bhw-o‑, growing well or straightforward (*bhw-o‑, to grow; see bheuə- ). probable , probe , probity , proof , prove ; approve , improbity , reprove , from Latin probus, upright, good, virtuous.
9. pro- ², from Greek pro, before, in front, forward.
10. Suffixed (comparative) form *pro-tero‑. hysteron proteron , Proterozoic , from Greek proteros, before, former.
11. Prakrit , from Sanskrit pra‑, before, forth.
12. Celtic *ro‑, intensive prefix. galore , from Old Irish roar, enough, from Celtic compound *ro-wero‑, sufficiency (*-wero‑, from root *wer‑, also the source of Old Irish feraid, he supplies, provides).
Extended forms *prai‑, *prei‑.
1. 1. pre- ; preterism , preterit , from Latin prae, before;
  2. compound *prai-ghes-to‑ (see ghes- ).
2. Suffixed (comparative) form *prei-yos‑. prior ², from Latin prior, former, higher, superior.
3. Suffixed form *prei-wo‑.
  1. private , privilege , privity , privy ; deprive , from Latin prīvus, single, alone (< "standing in front," "isolated from others");
  2. proper , property ; appropriate , expropriate , proprioception , proprioceptor , proprium , from Latin proprius, one's own, particular (< prōprīvō, in particular, from the ablative of prīvus, single; prō, for; see V. 4.).
4. Extended form *preis‑.
  1. Suffixed (superlative) form *preis-mo‑.
    1. premier , primal , primary , primate , prime , primitive , primo , primus ; imprimis , primavera ¹, primeval , primipara , primogenitor , primogeniture , primordial , from Latin prīmus (< *prīsmus; ablative plural prīmīs), first, foremost;
    2. prince , principal , principle , from Latin compound prīnceps, "he who takes first place," leader, chief, emperor (-ceps,"-taker"; see kap- ).
  2. suffixed form *preis-tano‑. pristine , from Latin prīstinus, former, earlier, original.
Extended form *pres‑ in compound *pres-g^wu‑, "going before" (*g^w-u‑, going; see g^wā- ). presbyter , Prester John , priest ; presbyopia , from Greek presbus, old, old man, elder.
Extended form *proti. pros- , from Greek pros, against, toward, near, at.

||[Pokorny 2. A. per 810.]
Other possibly related forms are grouped under per- ², per- ³, per- ⁴, per- ⁵.

r398_ ‌ ‌ per-²
To lead, pass over. A verbal root belonging to the group of per ¹.
Derivatives include fjord , welfare , emporium , opportune , important , and sport.

Full-grade form *per‑.
1. Suffixed form *per-tu‑. firth , fjord , from Old Norse fjördhr, an inlet, estuary, from Germanic *ferthuz, place for crossing over, ford.
2. Suffixed form *per-onā‑. peroneal , from Greek peronē, pin of a brooch, buckle (< "that which pierces through").
3. Suffixed form *per-yo‑. diapir , from Greek peirein, to pierce.
4. Suffixed form *per-trā‑. petro- , petrous , pier ; parsley , petrify , petroleum , saltpeter , from Greek petrā, cliff, rock (dissimilated from *pertrā‑), with possible earlier meaning "bedrock" (< "what one comes through to").
5. Suffixed form *per-wr̥, *per-wn̥‑, bedrock, "a coming through, what one comes through to," and derived adjective *per-wn̥-to‑, rocky. Parvati , from Sanskrit parvataḥ, mountain.
O-grade form *por‑.
1. 1. 1. fare ; warfare , wayfarer , wayfaring , welfare , from Old English faran, to go on a journey, get along;
    2. fieldfare , from Old English feldeware, possibly altered by folk etymology in Old English from an earlier *feldefare, from *fare, a goer, from faran (see (i) above).
  2. gaberdine , from Old High German faran, to go, travel;
  3. fartlek , from Old Norse fara, to go, move. a-c all from Germanic *faran, to go.
2. Suffixed form *por-o‑, passage, journey. pore ²; aporia , emporium , poromeric , from Greek poros, journey, passage.
3. Suffixed (causative) form *por-eyo‑, to cause to go, lead, conduct.
  1. ferry , from Old English ferian, to transport, from Germanic *farjan, to ferry;
  2. guar , wallah , from Sanskrit pārayati, pālayati, he leads across, brings to safety.
4. Lengthened-grade form *pōr‑.
  1. fere , from Old English (ge)fēra, "fellow-traveler," companion (ge‑, together, with; see kom ), from Germanic suffixed form *fōr-ja‑;
  2. führer , from Old High German fuoren, to lead, from Germanic suffixed (causative) form *fōr-jan.
5. Possibly suffixed form *por-no‑, feather, wing (< "that which carries a bird in flight").
  1. fern , from Old English fearn, fern (having feathery fronds), from Germanic *farnō, feather, leaf;
  2. paan , from Sanskrit parṇam, leaf, feather.
Zero-grade form *pr̥‑.
1. Suffixed form *pr̥-tu‑, passage.
  1. ford , from Old English ford, shallow place where one may cross a river, from Germanic *furdu‑;
  2. port ¹; importune , opportune , passport , from Latin portus, harbor (< "passage").
2. Suffixed form *pr̥-tā‑. porch , port ³, portal , portcullis , porter ², portico , portière , portulaca , purslane , from Latin porta, gate.
3. Suffixed (denominative) form *pr̥-to‑. port ⁵, portable , portage , portamento , portative , porter ¹; comport , deport , export , import , important , portfolio , purport , rapport , report , sport , support , transport , from Latin portāre, to carry.

||[Pokorny 2. B. per 816.]

r399_ ‌ ‌ per-³
To try, risk (< "to lead over," "press forward"). A verbal root belonging to the group of per ¹.

Lengthened grade *pēr‑. fear , from Old English fǣr, danger, sudden calamity, from Germanic *fēraz, danger.
Suffixed form *perī-tlo‑. parlous , peril , from Latin perīclum, perīculum, trial, danger.
Suffixed form *per-yo‑. experience , experiment , expert , from Latin experīrī, to try, learn by trying (ex‑, from; see eghs ).
Suffixed form *per-ya. pirate ; empiric , from Greek peira, trial, attempt.

||[Pokorny 2. E. per 818.]

r400_ ‌ ‌ per-⁴
To strike. A verbal root belonging to the group of per ¹.

: Extended forms *prem‑, *pres‑. pregnant ², press ¹, pressure , print ; appressed , après , compress , depress , espresso , express , impress ¹, imprimatur , imprint , oppress , repress , reprimand , reprisal , reprise , suppress , from Latin premere (past participle pressus), to press.

||[Pokorny 3. per‑ 818.]

r401_ ‌ ‌ per-⁵
To traffic in, sell (< "to hand over," "distribute"). A verbal root belonging to the group of per ¹ . Base of two distinct extended roots.

Root form *pret‑.
1. interpret , from Latin compound inter-pres (stem inter-pret‑), go-between, negotiator (inter‑, between; see en ).
2. Suffixed form *pret-yo‑. praise , precious , price ; appraise , appreciate , depreciate , from Latin pretium, price.
Variant root form *perə‑ (oldest form *perh₂‑). Suffixed form *p(e)r-n-ə‑, with o-grade *por(ə)-nā‑. pornography , from Greek pornē, prostitute, from pernanai, to sell.

|| ||[Pokorny 2. C. per 817.]

r402_ ‌ ‌ perd-
To fart.

1. fart , from Old English *feortan, to fart, from Germanic *fertan, *fartōn.
2. Perhaps futz , perhaps from partial translatation and alteration of Yiddish (arum)fartsn (zikh), to fart (around), from Middle High German varzen, to fart. Both a and b from Germanic *fertan, *fartōn.
partridge , from Greek perdix, partridge (which makes a sharp whirring sound when suddenly flushed).

||[Pokorny perd‑ 819.]
Compare pezd- .

r403_ ‌ ‌ perə-¹
To produce, procure. Oldest form *perh₂‑; possibly related to perə- ². See also per- ⁵II.
Derivatives include parade , parry , emperor , parachute , sever , and parent.

Zero-grade form *pr̥ə‑ (becoming *par‑ in Latin).
1. Suffixed form *par-ā‑. parade , pare , parlay , parry , parure ; apparatus , apparel , comprador , disparate , emperor , imperative , imperator , imperial , parachute , parasol , prepare , rampart , repair ¹, separate , sever , several , from Latin parāre, to try to get, prepare, equip;
2. suffixed form *par-yo‑. -para , parity ², -parous , parturient , postpartum , repertory , viper , from Latin parere, parīre, to get, beget, give birth;
3. parallel suffixed (participial) form *par-ent‑. parent , from Latin parēns, parent;
4. suffixed form *par-o‑, producing:
  1. juniper , from Latin iūniperus, juniper, perhaps from compound *yoini-paros, "producing juniper berries" (*yoini‑, juniper berry);
  2. compound *pau-paros (see pau- );
  3. Italic compound *wīwo-paros (see g^wei- ).
5. suffixed form *par-ikā‑. Parcae , from Latin Parcae, the Fates (who assign one's destiny).
Suffixed o-grade form por(ə)-sī‑. heifer , from Old English hēahfore, calf, a compound (with obscure first element) of fearr, calf, from Germanic *farzī‑.

||[Pokorny 2. D. per 818.]

r404_ ‌ ‌ perə-²
To grant, allot (reciprocally, to get in return). Oldest form *perh₃‑. Possibly related to perə- ¹. See also per- ⁵II. Zero-grade form *pr̥ə‑ (becoming *par‑ in Latin).

Suffixed form *par-ti‑. parcel , parcener , parse , part , particle , partisan , partita , party ; bipartite , compart , impart , participate , repartee , from Latin pars (stem part‑), a share, part;
possibly suffixed form *par-tiōn‑. portion , proportion , from Latin portiō, a part (first attested in the phrase prō portiōne, in proportion, according to each part, perhaps assimilated from *prō partiōne);
perhaps Latin pār, equal pair , par , pareve , parity ¹, peer ²; compare , imparity , nonpareil , pari-mutuel .

||[Pokorny 2. C. >per 817.]

r405_ ‌ ‌ perk^wu-
Oak.

Zero-grade form *pr̥k^w‑. fir , probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Icelandic fȳri, fir, from Germanic *furh-jōn‑.
Assimilated form *k^werk^wu‑. quercetin ; quercitron , from Latin quercus, oak.

||[Pokorny perk^u̯u-s 822.]

r406_ ‌ ‌ pes-
Penis. Suffixed form *pes-ni‑.

: pencil , penicillium , penis , from Latin pēnis (< *pesnis), penis, tail.

||[Pokorny 3. pes‑ 824.]

r407_ ‌ ‌ pet-
To rush, fly. Also petə- . Oldest form *peth₁‑. Variant *pteh₁‑, becoming *ptē‑.
Derivatives include feather , compete , perpetual , ptomaine , symptom , and hippopotamus.

Suffixed form *pet-rā‑. feather , from Old English fether, feather, from Germanic *fethrō, feather.
-petal , petition , petulant ; appetite , compete , impetigo , impetuous , impetus , perpetual , repeat , from Latin petere, to go toward, seek.
Suffixed form *pet-nā‑. panache , pen ¹, penna , pennate , pennon , pin , pinna , pinnacle , pinnate , pinnati- , pinnule ; empennage , from Latin penna, pinna, feather, wing.
Suffixed form *pet-ro‑ in compound *aku-petro‑ (see ōku- ).
Suffixed form *pet-yo‑. propitious , from Latin propitius, favorable, gracious, originally a religious term meaning "falling or rushing forward," hence "eager," "well-disposed" (said of the gods; prō‑, forward; see per ¹).
Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ero‑. -pter ; apteryx , archaeopteryx , coleopteran , dipteral , isopteran , mecopteran , monopteros , orthopteran , peripteral , plecopteran , pteridology , pterygoid , sauropterygian , from Greek pteron, feather, wing, and pterux, wing.
Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ilo‑. coleoptile , from Greek ptilon, soft feathers, down, plume.
Reduplicated form *pi-pt‑. ptomaine , ptosis ; asymptote , peripeteia , proptosis , symptom , from Greek piptein, to fall, with verbal adjective ptōtos (< *ptō-to‑), falling, fallen, and nominal derivatives ptōsis (< *ptō-ti‑), a fall, and ptōma (< *ptō-mn̥), a fall, fallen body, corpse.
O-grade form *pot‑. hippopotamus , potamology , from Greek potamos "rushing water," river (-amo‑, Greek suffix).
Suffixed form *pet-tro‑. talipot , from Sanskrit pattram, feather, leaf.

||[Pokorny 2. pet‑ 825.]

r408_ ‌ ‌ petə-
To spread. Oldest form *peth₂‑.
Derivatives include fathom , patent , and compass.

Suffixed o-grade form *pot(ə)-mo‑. fathom , from Old English fæthm, fathom, from Germanic *fathmaz, "length of two arms stretched out.".
Suffixed (stative) variant zero-grade form *pat-ē‑. patent , patulous , from Latin patēre, to be open.
Probably variant zero-grade form in remade nasalized form *pat-no‑. pace ¹, pandy , pas , paseo , pass , passé , passim ; compas , compass , expand , Paso Fino , pasqueflower , passacaglia , passage ¹, passage ², passport , repand , spawn , from Latin pandere (past participle passus < *pat-to‑), to spread out.
Suffixed form *pet-alo‑. petal , from Greek petalon, leaf.
Suffixed form *pet-ano‑. paella , pan ¹, paten , patina ¹, patina ², from Greek patanē (? < *petanā‑), platter, "thing spread out.".
petasos , from Greek petasos, broad-brimmed hat, from Greek suffixed form *peta-so‑.

||[Pokorny 1. pet‑ 824.]

r409_ ‌ ‌ peuə-
To purify, cleanse. Oldest form *peuh₂‑.

: Suffixed zero-grade form *pū-ro‑ (< *puh₂-ro‑) pour , pure , purée , purge , Puritan ; compurgation , depurate , expurgate , purblind , spurge , from Latin pūrus, pure, and pūrgāre, to purify (< *pūr-igāre < *pūr-agāre; *ag‑, to drive; see ag- )

||[Pokorny 1. peu‑ 827.]

r410_ ‌ ‌ peuk-
Also peug-.
To prick. Oldest forms *peuk̑‑, *peug̑‑, becoming *peuk‑, *peug‑ in centum languages. Zero-grade form *pug‑.

Suffixed form *pug-no‑. poniard , pugilism , pugil stick , pugnacious ; impugn , oppugn , repugn , from Latin pugil, pugilist, and pugnus, fist, with denominative pugnāre, to fight with the fist.
Nasalized zero-grade form *pu-n-g‑. bung , pink ², poignant , point , pointillism , pontil , pounce ¹, pounce ³, puncheon ¹, punctilio , punctual , punctuate , puncture , pungent ; bontebok , compunction , expunge , spontoon , trapunto , from Latin pungere, to prick.
pygmaean , Pygmy , from Greek pugmē, fist.
Seen by some as the base of Germanic fuk(k)‑ in words related to sexual intercourse, but uncertain. fuck .

||[Pokorny peuk̑‑ 828.]

r411_ ‌ ‌ pezd-
To fart.

Suffixed form *pezd-i‑. feist , from Old English fīsting, a breaking wind, and Middle English fisten, to fart, from Germanic *fistiz, a fart.
petard , from Latin pēdere, to fart.
Perhaps Latin pēdis, louse (? < "foul-smelling insect") pedicular ¹.

||[Pokorny pezd‑ 829, 2. peis‑ 796.]
Compare perd- .

r412_ ‌ ‌ pəter-
Father. Oldest form *ph₂ter‑.

father ; forefather , from Old English fæder, father, from Germanic *fadar.
padre , pater , paternal , patri- , patrician , patrimony , patron , père ; compadre , expatriate , goombah , perpetrate , from Latin pater, father.
patri- , patriot ; allopatric , eupatrid , parapatric , patriarch , sympatric , from Greek patēr, father.

||[Pokorny pətḗ (r) 829.]

r413_ ‌ ‌ plāk-¹
Also plak-.
To be flat. Earliest form *pleh₂k‑, colored to *plah₂k‑, becoming *plāk‑. Extension of pelə- ².
Derivatives include fluke ¹, flaw ¹, plead , placenta , and archipelago.

floe , from Old Norse flō, layer, coating, from Germanic *flōhō.
Variant form *plāg‑.
1. fluke ¹, from Old English flōc, flatfish, from Germanic *flōk‑;
2. flake ¹, from Middle English flake, flake, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Norwegian flak, flat piece, flake, from Germanic *flakaz;
3. flake ², from Old Norse flaki, fleki, hurdle, from Germanic *flak‑.
Extended form *plakā‑. flag ⁴, flaw ¹, from Old Norse flaga, layer of stone, from Germanic *flagō.
Possibly suffixed (stative) form *plak-ē‑, to be calm (as of the flat sea) placebo , placid , plea , plead , pleasant , please ; complacent , from Latin placēre, to please, be agreeable.
Root noun *plak‑. supplicate , supple , from Latin supplex, suppliant (whence denominative supplicāre, to beg humbly, first attested in Archaic Latin as sub vos placō, I entreat you; sub, under; see upo ).
Lengthened suffixed form *plāk-ā‑. placable , placate , from Latin plācāre, to calm (causative of placēre).
Nasalized form *pla-n-k‑. planchet , plank , from Latin plancus, flat, flat-footed.
Variant form *plag‑.
1. Perhaps Latin plaga, net (? < "something extended") plagiary ;
2. plagal , plagio- , playa , from Greek plagos, side.
Root form *plak‑. placenta , placoid ; leukoplakia , placoderm , from Greek plax, flat, flat land, surface, plate.
Possible variant form *pelag‑. pelagic ; archipelago , from Greek pelagos, sea.

||[Pokorny 1. plā-k‑ 831.]

r414_ ‌ ‌ plāk-²
To strike. Oldest form *pleh₂k‑, colored to *plah₂k‑, becoming *plāk‑.

Nasalized variant forms *pla-n-k‑, *pla-n-g‑.
1. fling , from Middle English flingen, to fling, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse flengja, to flog, whip, from Germanic *flang‑;
2. plaint , plangent ; complain , from Latin plangere, to strike (one's own breast), lament;
3. suffixed form *plang-yo‑. plankton , from Greek plazein, to drive away, turn aside.
Variant form *plāg‑. plague , from Latin plāga, a blow, stroke.
Suffixed form *plāk-yo‑. plectrum , -plegia , plexor ; apoplexy , cataplexy , paraplegia , from Greek plēssein, to beat, strike.

||[Pokorny 2. plāk‑ 832.]

r415_ ‌ ‌ plat-
Also pletə-.
To spread. (Oldest form *pletə₂‑). Extension of pelə- ².
Derivatives include flatter ¹, plant , plateau , platitude , and plaza.

Variant form *plad‑.
1. flat ¹, from Old Norse flatr, flat;
2. flatter ¹, from Old French flater, to flatter. Both a and b from Germanic *flataz, flat.
Suffixed variant form *plad-yo‑. flat ², from Old English flet(t), floor, dwelling, from Germanic *flatjam.
Basic form *plat‑. flan , from Late Latin fladō, flat cake, pancake, from Germanic *flathō(n), flat cake.
flounder ², from Anglo-Norman floundre, flounder, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Swedish flundra, flatfish, flounder, from Germanic suffixed nasalized form *flu-n-th-r-jō‑.
Nasalized form *pla-n-t‑. clan , plan , plant , plantain ¹, plantar ; plantigrade , supplant , transplant , from Latin planta, sole of the foot, and denominative plantāre, to drive in with the sole of the foot, plant, whence planta, a plant.
Suffixed zero-grade form *pl̥t(ə)-u‑. piazza , place , plaice , plane ⁴, plane tree , plate , plateau , Plateresque , platina , platinum , platitude , platy ², platy- , plaza ; plateosaurus , from Greek platus, flat, broad.

||[Pokorny plā̆t‑ 833.]

r416_ ‌ ‌ plek-
To plait. Extension of pel- ² . Oldest form *plek̑‑, becoming *plek‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include flax , pliant , and perplex.

Suffixed o-grade form *plok-so‑. flax , from Old English fleax, flax, from Germanic *flahsam, flax.
Full-grade form *plek‑. multiplex , from Latin -plex, -fold (in compounds such as duplex, twofold; see dwo- ).
plait , pleat , pliant , plica , plicate , plight ¹, plissé , ply ¹; apply , complicate , complice , deploy , display , employ , explicate , explicit , exploit , implicate , implicit , replicate , reply , splay , from Latin plicāre, to fold (also in compounds used as denominatives of words in -plex, genitive -plicis).
Suffixed forms *plek-to‑ and *plek-t-to‑. pleach , plexus ; amplexicaul , amplexus , complect , complex , perplexed , from Latin plectere (past participle plexus), to weave, plait, entwine.
plecopteran , from Greek plekein, to plait, twine, and plektos, twisted.

||[Pokorny plek̑‑ 834.]

r417_ ‌ ‌ pleu-
To flow.
Derivatives include pulmonary , Pluto , flow , fowl , flutter , and fluster.

Basic form *pleu‑.
1. plover , pluvial , pluvious , from Latin pluere, to rain.
2. pleopod , from Greek plein (< *plewein), to swim.
3. pleuston , from Greek pleusis, sailing.
4. Suffixed zero-grade form *plu-elos. pyelitis , from Greek dissimilated puelos, trough, basin.
5. Suffixed form *pl(e)u-mon‑, "floater," lung(s).
  1. pulmonary , from Latin pulmō (< *plumonēs), lung(s);
  2. pneumo- , pneumonia , pneumonic , from Greek pleumōn, pneumōn (influenced by pneuma, breath; see pneu- ), lung.
6. Suffixed o-grade form *plou-to‑. Pluto ; plutocracy , from Greek ploutos, wealth, riches (< "overflowing").
7. Lengthened o-grade form *plō(u)‑.
  1. 1. flow , from Old English flōwan, to flow;
    2. perhaps Middle Dutch vluwe, fishnet flue ², Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *flōwan, to flow.
  2. suffixed form *plō-tu‑. flood , from Old English flōd, flood, from Germanic *flōduz, flowing water, deluge.
Extended form *pleuk‑.
1. fly ¹, from Old English flēogan, to fly, from Germanic *fleugan, to fly.
2. fly ², from Old English flēoge, a fly, from Germanic *fleugōn‑, flying insect, fly.
3. Probably Germanic *fleuhan, to run away. flee , from Old English flēon, to flee.
4. fley , from Old English flȳgan, flēgan, to put to flight, from Germanic causative *flaugjan.
5. flèche , fletcher , from Old French fleche, arrow, from Germanic suffixed form *fleug-ika.
6. Zero-grade form *pluk‑.
  1. fledge , from Old English *flycge, with feathers (only in unfligge, featherless), from Germanic *flugja‑, feather;
  2. flight ¹, flight ², from Old English flyht, act of flying, and *flyht, act of fleeing, escape, from Germanic suffixed form *flug-ti‑;
  3. fowl , from Old English fugol, bird, from Germanic *fuglaz, bird, dissimilated from possible (but unlikely) suffixed form *flug-laz;
  4. flugelhorn , fugleman , from Middle High German vlügel, wing, from Germanic suffixed form *flug-ilaz.
Extended form *pleud‑.
1. fleet ¹, fleet ², from Old English flēotan, to float, swim (from Germanic *fleutan), and Old Norse fljōtr, fleet, swift (from Germanic *fleutaz).
2. Zero-grade form *plud‑.
  1. 1. float , from Old English flotian, to float;
    2. flotsam , from Old French floter, to float. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic derivative *flotōn, to float.
  2. flotilla , from Old Norse floti, raft, fleet;
  3. flutter , from Old English floterian, flotorian, to float back and forth (-erian, iterative and frequentative suffix);
  4. flit , from Old Norse flytja, to further, convey, from Germanic *flutjan, to float. a-d all from Germanic *flut‑, *flot‑.
3. fluster , probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Icelandic flaustr, hurry, and flaustra, to bustle, from Germanic *flausta‑, contracted from suffixed form *flaut-stā‑, probably from *pleud‑, o-grade *ploud‑.

||[Pokorny pleu‑ 835, pl(e)u-mon‑ 837.]

r418_ ‌ ‌ pneu-
To breathe. Imitative root.

sneeze , from Old English fnēosan, to sneeze, from Germanic *fneu-s‑.
snore , snort , from Old English fnora, sneezing, from Germanic *fnu-s‑.
apnea , dipnoan , dyspnea , eupnea , hyperpnea , hypopnea , polypnea , tachypnea , from Greek pnein, to breathe, with o-grade nouns pnoiā, -pnoia, breathing, and pnoē, breath.
Suffixed form *pneu-mn̥. pneuma , pneumatic , pneumato- , pneumo- ; amphiuma , from Greek pneuma, breath, wind, spirit.
Germanic variant root *fnes‑. sneer , from Old English fnǣran, to snort, gnash one's teeth.

||[Pokorny pneu‑ 838.]

r419_ ‌ ‌ pō(i)-
To drink. Oldest form *peh₃(i)‑, colored to *poh₃(i)‑.

Basic form *pō(i)‑, reduced to *pō‑ (< *poh₃‑).
1. Suffixed form *pō-to‑. potable , potation , potatory , from Latin pōtus, drunk; a drink (whence pōtāre, to drink).
2. Suffixed form *pō-ti‑. poison , potion , from Latin pōtiō, a drink.
3. Suffixed form *pō-tlo‑, drinking vessel. hibachi , from Sanskrit pātram, cup, bowl.
4. Suffixed reduplicated zero-grade form *pi-pə-o‑ (oldest form *pi-ph₃-o‑), whence *pi-bo‑, assimilated to *bi-bo‑. beer , beverage , bib , bibulous ; imbibe , imbrue , from Latin bibere, to drink.
5. Suffixed zero-grade form *pə-ti‑ (oldest form *ph₃-ti‑), *po-ti‑. symposium , from Greek posis, drink, drinking.
Zero-grade form *pī‑ (< *piə‑).
1. Suffixed form *pī-ro‑. pierogi , pirozhki , from Slavic *pirŭ, feast (Old Church Slavonic pirŭ).
2. Suffixed (nasal present) form *pī-no‑. pinocytosis , from Greek pīnein, to drink.

||[Pokorny 2. pō(i)‑ 839.]

r420_ ‌ ‌ porko-
Young pig. Oldest form *pork̑o‑, becoming *porko‑ in centum languages.

1. farrow ¹, from Old English fearh, little pig;
2. aardvark , from Middle Dutch diminutive form varken, small pig. Both a and b from Germanic *farhaz.
porcelain , porcine , pork ; porcupine , porpoise , from Latin porcus, pig.

||[Pokorny pork̑o-s 841.]

r421_ ‌ ‌ poti-
Powerful; lord.

podesta , possess , power , from Latin potis (> *pots > pos‑), powerful, able.
possible , potent ; impotent , omnipotent , prepotent , from Latin compound posse, to be able (contracted from potis, able + esse, to be; see es- ).
Form *pot‑.
1. Compound *ghos-pot‑ (see ghos-ti- );
2. compound *dems-pot‑ (see dem- ).
1. vanaspati , from Sanskrit patiḥ, lord;
2. bashaw , Padishah , pasha , from Old Persian pati‑, master. Both a and b from Indo-Iranian *pati‑, lord.

||[Pokorny poti-s 842.]

r422_ ‌ ‌ prek-
To ask, entreat. Oldest form *prek̑‑, becoming *prek‑ in centum languages.

Basic form *prek‑. pray , prayer ¹, precarious ; deprecate , imprecate , prie-dieu , from *prex, prayer (attested only in the plural precēs), with Latin denominative precārī, to entreat, pray.
Suffixed zero-grade form *pr̥k-sk‑ becoming *pork-sk‑, contracted to *posk‑ in suffixed form *posk-to‑, contracted to *posto‑. postulate ; expostulate , from Latin postulāre, to ask, request.

||[Pokorny 4. perk̑‑ 821.]

r423_ ‌ ‌ preus-
To freeze, burn.

freeze , from Old English frēosan, to freeze, from Germanic *freusan, to freeze.
Suffixed zero-grade form *prus-to‑. frost , from Old English forst, frost, frost, from Germanic *frustaz, frost.
Suffixed form *preus-i‑. prurient , prurigo , pruritus , from Latin denominative prūrīre, to burn, itch, yearn for, from *preusis, *preuris, act of burning.
Suffixed zero-grade form *prus-wīnā‑. pruinose , from Latin pruīna, hoarfrost.

||[Pokorny preus‑ 846.]

r424_ ‌ ‌ prī-
To love. Oldest form *prih_x‑ (becoming *priy‑ before vowels).
Derivatives include filibuster , friend , and Friday.

Suffixed form *priy-o‑.
1. free , from Old English frēo, free, and frēon, freogan, to love, set free;
2. filibuster , freebooter , from Dutch vrij, free. Both a and b from Germanic *frijaz, beloved, belonging to the loved ones, not in bondage, free, and *frijōn, to love.
Suffixed (participial) form *priy-ont‑, loving. friend , from Old English frīond, frēond, friend, from Germanic *frijand‑, lover, friend.
Suffixed shortened form *pri-tu‑.
1. Siegfried , from Old High German fridu, peace;
2. affray , afraid , from Old French esfreer, to disturb, from Vulgar Latin *exfredāre, to break the peace, from ex‑, out, away (see eghs ) + *fridāre, to make peace, from Germanic *frithu‑, peace;
3. Germanic *frij‑, peace, safety, in compound *berg-frij‑ (see bhergh- ²). a-c all from Germanic *frithuz, peace.
Suffixed feminine form *priy-ā‑, beloved.
1. Frigg , from Old Norse Frigg, goddess of the heavens, wife of Odin;
2. Friday , from Old English Frīgedæg, Friday, from Germanic compound *frije-dagaz, "day of Frigg" (translation of Latin Veneris diēs, "Venus's day"). Both a and b from Germanic *frijjō, beloved, wife.

||[Pokorny prāi‑ 844.]

r425_ ‌ ‌ pū̆-
To rot, decay. Probably from earlier *puh_x‑ (becoming *puw‑ before vowels).
Derivatives include foul , fuzzy , potpourri , and pus.

Suffixed form *pū-lo‑.
1. foul , from Old English fūl, unclean, rotten;
2. fulmar , from Old Norse fūll, foul;
3. filth , from Old English fȳlth, foulness, from Germanic abstract noun *fūlithō;
4. file ³, foil ¹; defile ¹, from Old English fȳlan, to sully, from Germanic denominative *fūljan, to soil, dirty. a-d all from Germanic *fūlaz, rotten, filthy.
Extended form *pug‑. fog ², from Middle English fog, fogge, aftermath grass, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Icelandic fūki, rotten sea grass, and Norwegian fogg, rank grass, from Germanic *fuk‑.
Extended variant form *pous‑. fuzzy , from Low German fussig, spongy, from Germanic *fausa‑.
Suffixed form *pu-tri‑. putrescent , putrid , puttanesca ; olla podrida , potpourri , putrefy , from Latin puter (stem putri‑), rotten.
Suffixed form *puw-os‑.
1. purulent , pus ; suppurate , from Latin pūs, pus;
2. pyo- , from Greek puon, puos, pus.
empyema , from Greek compound empuein, to suppurate (en‑, in; see en ).

||[Pokorny 2. pū̆‑ 848.]

r426_ ‌ [‌ re-
Also red-.
Backward. Latin combining form conceivably from Indo-European *wret‑, metathetical variant of *wert‑, to turn (< "turned back"), an extended form of wer- ².

re- , from Latin re‑, red‑, backward, again.
Suffixed form *re(d)-tro‑. retral , retro- ; arrears , rear guard , rearward ², reredos , from Latin retrō, backward, back, behind.
Suffixed form *re-ko‑ in Latin reciprocus (see per ¹).

]

r427_ ‌ ‌ rē-
To bestow, endow. Oldest form *reh₁‑. Suffixed form *reə-i‑, goods, wealth, property.

: re ², real ¹, realia , rebus ; reify , republic , from Latin rēs, thing.

||[Pokorny 4. rei‑ 860.]

r428_ ‌ ‌ rēd-
To scrape, scratch, gnaw. Oldest form *reh₁d‑, becoming *rēd‑.

O-grade form *rōd‑.
1. rodent ; corrode , erode , from Latin rōdere, to gnaw;
2. suffixed (instrumental) form *rōd-tro‑. rostrum , from Latin rōstrum, beak, ship's bow.
Possibly extended zero-grade form *rəd-d‑, becoming *razd‑, whence *rād‑ in Latin.
1. radula , rape ³, rappee , rascal , rash ², rasorial , ratteen , raze , razor ; abrade , corrade , erase , from Latin rādere, to scrape;
2. suffixed (instrumental) form *rād-tro‑. raclette , raster , from Latin rāstrum, rake.
Zero-grade form *rəd‑. rat , from Old English ræt, rat, from Germanic *rattōn‑.

||[Pokorny 2. rēd‑ 854.]

r429_ ‌ ‌ reg-
To move in a straight line, with derivatives meaning "to direct in a straight line, lead, rule. " Oldest form *h₃reg̑‑, becoming *h₃reg‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include right , realm , anorexia , rich , rule , interrogate , and reckless.

Basic form *reg‑.
1. Suffixed form *reg-to‑. right , from Old English riht, right, just, correct, straight, from Germanic *rehtaz.
2. realm , rectitude , recto , rector , rectum , rectus , regent , regime , regimen , regiment , region ; address , adroit , alert , correct , derecho , direct , erect , incorrigible , porrect , rectangle , rectify , rectilinear , resurge , Risorgimento , sord , source , surge , from Latin regere, to lead straight, guide, rule (past participle rēctus, hence adjective rēctus, right, straight).
3. orexin ; anorectic , anorexia , from Greek oregein, to stretch out, reach out for (with o‑ from oldest root form *ə₃reg̑‑).
Lengthened-grade form *rēg‑, Indo-European word for a tribal king.
1. 1. bishopric , eldritch , from Old English rīce, realm;
  2. Riksmål , from Old Norse rīki, realm;
  3. Reich ; reichsmark , from Old High German rīchi, realm;
  4. rich , from Old English rīce, strong, powerful, and Old French riche, wealthy. a-d all from Germanic *rīkja‑, from Celtic suffixed form *rīg-yo‑.
2. real ², regal , regulus , reign , rex , rial ¹, riyal , royal ; ariary , regicide , regius professor , vicereine , viceroy , from Latin rēx, king (royal and priestly title).
3. Suffixed form *rēg-en‑. raj , rajah , rani , rye ²; maharaja , maharani , from Sanskrit rājā, rājan‑, king, rajah (feminine rājñī, queen, rani), and rājati, he rules.
Suffixed lengthened-grade form *rēg-olā‑. rail ¹, reglet , regular , regulate , rillettes , rule , from Latin rēgula, straight piece of wood, rod.
O-grade form *rog‑.
1. rake ¹, from Old English raca, racu, rake (implement with straight pieces of wood), from Germanic *rakō.
2. rack ¹, from Middle Dutch rec, framework, from Germanic *rak‑.
3. Possibly Germanic *rankaz (with nasal infix) rank ², from Old English ranc, straight, strong, hence haughty, overbearing.
4. reckon , from Old English gerecenian, to arrange in order, recount (ge‑, collective prefix; see kom ), from Germanic *rakinaz, ready, straightforward.
5. Suffixed form *rog-ā‑. rogation , rogatory ; abrogate , arrogate , corvée , derogate , interrogate , prerogative , prorogue , subrogate , supererogate , from Latin rogāre, to ask (< "stretch out the hand").
6. Suffixed form *rog-o‑. ergo , from Latin ergō, therefore, in consequence of, perhaps contracted from a Latin phrase *ē rogō, "from the direction of" (ē, < ex, out of; see eghs ), from a possible Latin noun *rogus, "extension, direction.".
Lengthened o-grade form *rōg‑.
1. reck , from Old English rec(c)an, to pay attention to, take care (formally influenced by Old English reccan, to extend, stretch out, from Germanic *rakjan), from Germanic *rōkjan.
2. reckless , from Old English rēcelēas, careless (-lēas, lacking; see leu- ), from Germanic rōkja‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *r̥g-yo‑. raita , from Sanskrit ṛjyati, he stretches out.

||[Pokorny 1. reg̑‑ 854.]

r430_ ‌ ‌ rei-
To flow, run.

Suffixed zero-grade form *ri-nu‑.
1. run , runnel , from Old English rinnan, to run, and Old Norse rinna, to run (from Germanic *rinnan, to run, from *ri-nw-an), and from Old English causative ærnan, eornan, to run (from secondary Germanic causative *rannjan);
2. Ember Day , from Old English ryne, a running, from secondary Germanic derivative *runiz;
3. rennet , from Old English *rynet, from secondary Germanic derivative *runita‑.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ri-l‑. rill , from Dutch ril or Low German rille, running stream, from Germanic *ril‑.
Suffixed form *rei-wo‑. rival , rivulet ; derive , from Latin rīvus, stream.

||[Pokorny 3. er‑ 326.]

r431_ ‌ ‌ reidh-
To ride.
Derivatives include raid , road , and array.

Basic form *reidh‑.
1. ride , from Old English rīdan, to ride, from Germanic *rīdan.
2. palfrey , from Latin verēdus, post horse, from Celtic *wo-rēd‑ (*wo‑, under; see upo ).
O-grade form *roidh‑.
1. 1. raid , road , from Old English rād, a riding, road, from Germanic *raid‑;
  2. raddle ¹, from Middle High German reidel, rod between upright stakes (< "wooden horse"), possibly from Germanic *raid‑ (see a).
2. Probably Germanic *raid-ja‑. ready ; already , from Old English ræde, geræde, ready (< "prepared for a journey").
3. Probably Germanic *raidjan. raiment ; array , curry ¹, from Vulgar Latin *-rēdāre, to arrange.

||[Pokorny reidh‑ 861.]

r432_ ‌ ‌ reig-
To reach, stretch out. Oldest form *reig̑‑, becoming *reig‑ in centum languages.

O-grade form *roig‑. reach , from Old English rǣcan, to stretch out, reach, from Germanic *raikjan.
Possibly suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *rig-ē‑. rigid , rigor , from Latin rigēre, to be stiff (? < "be stretched out").

||[Pokorny (reig̑‑) 862.]

r433_ ‌ ‌ rep-
To snatch.

: Suffixed zero-grade form *rap-yo‑. rapacious , rape ¹, rapid , rapine , rapt , ravage , raven ², ravin , ravish ; erepsin , subreption , surreptitious , from Latin rapere, to seize.

||[Pokorny rep‑ 865.]

r434_ ‌ ‌ ret-
To run, roll.

Prefixed Celtic form *to-wo-ret‑, "a running up to" (to‑, to; wo, under, up, up from under; see upo ). Tory , from Old Irish tóir, pursuit.
Suffixed o-grade form *rot-ā‑. rodeo , roll , rota , rotary , rotate , rotund , rotunda , roulette , round ¹, rowel ; barouche , control , prune ², rocambole , rotavirus , rotaxane , rotiform , rotogravure , from Latin rota, wheel.
Suffixed (participial) form *ret-ondo‑. rotund , rotunda , round ¹, from Latin rotundus, round, probably from *retundus, "rolling.".

||[Pokorny ret(h)‑ 866.]

r435_ ‌ ‌ reudh-
Red, ruddy. Oldest form *h₁reudh‑.
Derivatives include red , robust , corroborate , ruby , and rubric.

O-grade form *roudh‑.
1. 1. red , from Old English rēad, red;
  2. rorqual , from Old Norse raudhr, red;
  3. rooibos , from Middle Dutch root, red. a-c all from Germanic *raudaz.
2. Perhaps ultimately also from Germanic raudaz is Old Spanish roán, roan, if from Gothic *rauths, red, or a kindred Germanic source. roan .
3. rowan , from a source akin to Old Norse reynir, mountain ash, rowan (from its red berries), from Germanic *raudnia‑.
4. rufescent , rufous , from Latin rūfus (of dialectal Italic origin), reddish.
5. rouille , rubiginous , from Latin rōbus, red.
6. roble , roborant , robust ; corroborate , rambunctious , from Latin rōbur, rōbus, red oak, hardness, and rōbustus, strong.
7. lollipop , perhaps from Romani lolo, red, from Middle Indic lohita‑, from Sanskrit.
Zero-grade form *rudh‑.
1. Suffixed form *rudh-ā‑.
  1. ruddle , from Old English rudu, red color;
  2. ruddock , from Old English rudduc, robin;
  3. ruddy , from Old English rudig, ruddy. a-c all from Germanic *rudō.
2. Suffixed form *rudh-sto‑. rust , from Old English rūst (also rust?), rust, from Germanic *rust‑.
3. rouge , rubeola , ruby ; rubefacient , from Latin rubeus, red.
4. rubicund , from Latin rubicundus, red, ruddy.
5. rubidium , from Latin rūbidus, red.
6. Suffixed (stative) form *rudh-ē‑. rubescent , from Latin rubēre, to be red.
7. Suffixed form *rudh-ro‑.
  1. rubella , rubric ; bilirubin , from Latin ruber, red;
  2. rutilant , rutile , from Latin rutilus, reddish;
  3. erythema , erythro- , from Greek eruthros, red (with prothetic vowel from oldest zero-grade form *ərudh‑);
  4. erysipelas , from possibly remade Greek erusi‑, red, reddening.
8. Suffixed form *rudh-to‑. rissole , roux , russet , from Latin russus, red.

||[Pokorny reudh‑ 872.]

r436_ ‌ ‌ reuə-
To open; space. Oldest form *ruh_x-mo‑.

Suffixed zero-grade form *rū-mo‑ (< *ruə-mo‑).
1. room , from Old English rūm, space;
2. lebensraum , from Old High German rūm, space;
3. rummage , from Old Provençal run, ship's hold, space. a-c all from Germanic *rūmaz;
4. ream ², from Old English rȳman, to widen, open up, from Germanic denominative *rūmjan.
Suffixed form *reu(ə)-es‑. rural , rustic , from Latin rūs, "open land," the country.

||[Pokorny reu̯ə‑ 874.]

r437_ ‌ ‌ reug-
To vomit, belch; smoke, cloud. Oldest form h₁reug‑.

reek , from Old English rēocan, to smoke, reek, and rēcan, to fumigate, from Germanic *reukan.
Suffixed zero-grade form *rug-to‑. eruct , from Latin rūctāre, to belch.

|| ||[Pokorny reu-b‑ 871.]

r438_ ‌ ‌ reup-
Also reub-.
To snatch.
Derivatives include bereave , rob , usurp , and bankrupt.

Basic form *reub‑. rip ¹, from Flemish rippen, to rip, from Germanic *rupjan.
O-grade form *roup‑.
1. 1. reave , from Old English rēafian, to plunder;
  2. bereave , from Old English berēafian, to take away (be‑,bi‑, intensive prefix; see ambhi );
  3. rover ², from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German roven, to rob. a-c all from Germanic *(bi‑)raubōn.
2. 1. rob , from Old French rober, to rob;
  2. rubato , from Italian rubare, to rob. Both a and b from a Romance borrowing from Germanic *raubōn, to rob.
3. robe ; garderobe , from Old French robe, robe (< "clothes taken as booty"), from Germanic *raubō, booty.
4. Suffixed form *roup-tro‑. loot , from Sanskrit loptram, booty.
5. ruble , from Old Russian rubiti, to chop, hew, from Slavic *rubje/a‑.
Zero-grade form *rup‑.
1. usurp , from Latin ūsūrpāre (< *ūsu-rup‑; ūsus, use, usage, from ūtī, to use), originally "to interrupt the orderly acquisition of something by the act of using," whence to take into use, usurp.
2. Nasalized zero-grade form *ru-m-p‑. rout ¹, rupture ; abrupt , bankrupt , corrupt , disrupt , erupt , interrupt , irrupt , rupicolous , from Latin rumpere, to break.

|| ||[Pokorny 2. reu‑ 868.]

r439_ ‌ ‌ r̥tko-
Bear. Oldest form *h₂r̥tk̑o‑, becoming *h₂ r̥tko‑ in centum languages.

ursine , from Latin ursus, bear (< *orcsos).
arctic , Arcturus , from Greek arktos, bear.

||[Pokorny ŕ̥k̑Þo-s 875.]

r440_ ‌ ‌ sā-
To satisfy. Oldest form *seh₂‑, colored to *sah₂‑, becoming *sā‑.

Suffixed zero-grade form *sə-to‑.
1. sad , from Old English sæd, sated, weary, from Germanic *sadaz, sated;
2. sate ¹, from Old English sadian, to sate, from derivative Germanic verb *sadōn, to satisfy, sate.
Suffixed zero-grade form *sə-ti‑. satiate , satiety ; assai , asset , satisfy , from Latin satis, enough, sufficient.
Suffixed zero-grade form *sə-tu-ro‑. satire , saturate , from Latin satur, full (of food), sated.
Suffixed zero-grade form *sə-d-ro‑. hadron , from Greek hadros, thick.

||[Pokorny sā‑ 876.]

r441_ ‌ ‌ sāg-
To seek out. Oldest form *seh₂g‑, colored to *sah₂g‑, becoming *sāg‑.
Derivatives include seek , ransack , and hegemony.

Suffixed form *sāg-yo‑. seek , from Old English sǣcan, sēcan, to seek, from Germanic *sōkjan.
Suffixed form *sāg-ni‑. soke , from Old English sōcn, attack, inquiry, right of local jurisdiction, from Germanic *sōkniz.
Zero-grade form *səg‑.
1. sake ¹, from Old English sacu, lawsuit, case, from Germanic derivative noun *sakō, "a seeking," accusation, strife;
2. 1. forsake , from Old English forsacan, to renounce, refuse (for‑, prefix denoting exclusion or rejection; see per ¹);
  2. ramshackle , ransack , from Old Norse *saka, to seek. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sakan, to seek, accuse, quarrel. Both a and b from Germanic *sak‑.
Independent suffixed form *sāg-yo‑. presage , from Latin sāgīre, to perceive, "seek to know.".
Zero-grade form *səg‑. sagacious , from Latin sagāx, of keen perception.
Suffixed form *sāg-eyo‑. diegesis , exegesis , hegemony , from Greek hēgeisthai, to lead (< "to track down").

||[Pokorny sāg‑ 876.]

r442_ ‌ ‌ sak-
To sanctify.

Suffixed form *sak-ro‑.
1. sacred , sacristan , sexton ; consecrate , execrate , from Latin sacer, holy, sacred, dedicated;
2. compound *sakro-dhōt‑, "performer of sacred rites" (*-dhōt‑, doer; see dhē- ). sacerdotal , from Latin sacerdōs, priest.
Nasalized form *sa-n-k‑. saint , sanctum ; corposant , sacrosanct , sanctify , from Latin sancīre (past participle sānctus), to make sacred, consecrate.

||[Pokorny sak‑ 878.]

r443_ ‌ ‌ sal-
Salt.

Extended form *sald‑.
1. Suffixed form *sald-o‑. salt , from Old English sealt, salt, from Germanic *saltam;
2. 1. souse ¹, from Old French sous, pickled meat;
  2. silt , from Middle English cylte, fine sand, from a source probably akin to Danish and Norwegian sylt, salt marsh. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic zero-grade suffixed extended form *sult-jō.
3. salsa , sauce , sausage , from Latin sallere (past participle salsus < *sald-to‑), to salt.
sal , salad , salami , salary , sali- , saline ; salmagundi , saltcellar , saltpeter , from Latin sāl (genitive salis), salt.
halo- , from Greek hals (stem hal‑), salt, sea.
solonchak , from Russian solonets, salty soil, akin to Old Church Slavonic slanŭ, salty, from Common Slavic *solnŭ.

||[Pokorny 1. sal‑ 878.]

r444_ ‌ ‌ sāwel-
The sun. Oldest form *seh₂wel‑, colored to *sah₂wel‑, becoming *sāwel‑, with zero-grade *s(u)wel‑. The element *-el‑ was originally suffixal, and alternated with *-en‑, yielding the variant zero-grades *s(u)wen‑ and (reduced) *sun‑.
Derivatives include Sunday , south , solar , and helium.

Variant forms *swen‑, *sun‑.
1. 1. sun , from Old English sunne, sun;
  2. sundew , from Middle Dutch sonne, sun. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sunnōn‑.
2. Sunday , from Old English sunnandæg, Sunday, from Germanic compound *sunnōn-dagaz, "day of the sun" (translation of Latin diēs sōlis);
3. south , southern , from Old English sūth, south, and sūtherne, southern, from Germanic derivative *sunthaz, "sun-side," south.
Variant form *s(ə)wōl‑. sol ³, Sol , solar , solarium ; girasol , insolate , parasol , solanaceous , solanine , solstice , turnsole , from Latin sōl, the sun.
Suffixed form *sāwel-yo‑. heliacal , helio- , helium ; anthelion , aphelion , isohel , parhelion , perihelion , from Greek hēlios, sun.

||[Pokorny sāwel‑ 881.]

r445_ ‌ ‌ sē-
To sow. Contracted from *seə₁‑.

sow ¹, from Old English sāwan, to sow, from Germanic *sēan.
Suffixed form *sē-ti‑, sowing.
1. seed , from Old English sǣd, seed;
2. colza , from Middle Dutch saet and Middle Low German sāt, seed. Both a and b from Germanic *sēdiz, seed.
Reduplicated zero-grade form *si-s(ə)‑. season , from Latin serere, to sow, satiō (< *sə-tiō), sowing.
Suffixed form *sē-men‑, seed. semé , semen , seminary ; disseminate , inseminate , sinsemilla , from Latin sēmen, seed.

|| ||[Pokorny 2. sē(i)‑ 889.]

r446_ ‌ ‌ sed-
To sit.
Derivatives include sit , soot , séance , siege , obsess , subside , soil ¹, and chair.

Basic form *sed‑.
1. Suffixed form *sed-yo‑.
  1. sit , from Old English sittan, to sit;
  2. sitz bath , sitzmark , from Old High German sizzen, to sit. Both a and b from Germanic *sitjan.
2. Suffixed form *sed-lo‑, seat. settle , from Old English setl, seat, from Germanic *setlaz.
3. Suffixed (stative) form *sed-ē‑. séance , sedentary , sederunt , sedile , sediment , sessile , session , sewer ², siege ; assess , assiduous , assize , dissident , insidious , obsess , possess , preside , reside , subsidy , supersede , surcease , from Latin sedēre, to sit.
4. Suffixed form *sed-rā‑. -hedron ; cathedra , cathedral , chair , ephedrine , exedra , Sanhedrin , from Greek hedrā, seat, chair, face of a geometric solid.
5. Prefixed and suffixed form *pi-sed-yo‑, to sit upon (*pi, on; see epi ). piezo- ; isopiestic , from Greek piezein, to press tight.
6. Basic form *sed‑.
  1. edaphic , from Greek edaphos, ground, foundation (with Greek suffix -aphos);
  2. Upanishad , from Sanskrit upaniṣad, Upanishad, from -sad, sitting;
  3. tanist , from Old Irish tánaise, designated successor, from Celtic *tānihessio‑, "one who is waited for," from *to-ad-ni-sed-tio, from *to-ad-ni-sed‑, to wait for (*ad‑, to; see ad- ).
7. Suffixed form *sed-o‑, sitting. eisteddfod , from Welsh eistedd, sitting, from Celtic *eks-dī-sedo‑ (*eks‑, out, and *dī‑, out, from; see eghs and de- ).
O-grade form *sod‑.
1. Perhaps suffixed form *sod-dhlo‑. saddle , from Old English sadol, saddle, from Germanic *sadulaz, seat, saddle.
2. Suffixed (causative) form *sod-eyo‑.
  1. set ¹, from Old English settan, to place;
  2. beset , from Old English besettan, to set near;
  3. ersatz , from Old High German irsezzan, to replace, from sezzan, to set. a-c all from Germanic *(bi‑)satjan, to cause to sit, set.
3. Suffixed form *sod-yo‑. soil ¹, from Latin solium, throne, seat.
Zero-grade form *-sd‑ (in compounds), assimilated to *-zd‑.
1. Reduplicated form *si-sd‑ becoming *si-zd‑.
  1. subside , from Latin sīdere, to sit down, settle;
  2. synizesis , from Greek hizein, to sit down, settle down.
2. Compound suffixed form *ni-zd-o‑, nest, literally "(bird's place of) sitting down" (*ni‑, down).
  1. nest , from Old English nest, from Germanic *nistaz;
  2. niche , nick , nide , nidus ; eyas , nidicolous , nidifugous , nidify , from Latin nīdus. nest.
3. Compound suffixed form *kuzdho-zd‑ (see (s)keu- ).
Lengthened-grade form *sēd‑.
1. see ², from Latin sēdēs, seat, residence.
2. Suffixed form *sēd-i‑, settler. cosset , possibly from Old English -sǣta, -sǣte, inhabitant(s), from Germanic *sētōn‑, *sēti‑.
3. Suffixed form *sēd-yo‑. seat , from Old Norse sæti, seat, from Germanic *(ge)sētjam, seat (*ge‑,*ga‑, collective prefix; see kom ).
4. Suffixed form *sēd-ā‑. sedate ¹, from Latin sēdāre, to settle, calm down.
5. Suffixed form *sēd-es‑, seat. banshee , from Old Irish síd, fairy mound.
Lengthened o-grade form *sōd‑. soot , from Old English sōt, soot (< "that which settles"), from Germanic *sōtam, from suffixed form *sōd-o‑.

||[Pokorny sed‑ 884.]

r447_ ‌ ‌ segh-
To hold. Oldest form *seg̑h‑, becoming *segh‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include hectic , eunuch , scheme , and scholar.

Suffixed form *segh-es‑. Siegfried , from Old High German sigu, sigo, victory, from Germanic *sigiz‑, victory (< "a holding or conquest in battle").
hectic ; cachexia , cathexis , entelechy , eunuch , Ophiuchus , from Greek ekhein, to hold, possess, be in a certain condition, and hexis, habit, condition.
1. Possible suffixed (abstract noun) form *segh-wēr, toughness, steadfastness, with derivative *segh-wēr-o‑, tough, stern. severe ; asseverate , persevere , from Latin sevērus, stern;
2. sthenia ; asthenia , calisthenics , hypersthene , hyposthenia , from Greek sthenos, physical strength, from a possible related abstract noun form *sgh-wen-es‑ (with zero-grade of the root).
O-grade form *sogh‑. epoch , from Greek epokhē, "a holding back," pause, cessation, position in time (epi‑, on, at; see epi ).
Zero-grade form *sgh‑.
1. scheme , from Greek skhēma, "a holding," form, figure;
2. scholar , scholastic , scholium , school ¹, from Greek skholē, "a holding back," stop, rest, leisure, employment of leisure in disputation, school.
Reduplicated form *si-sgh‑. ischemia , from Greek iskhein, to keep back.

||[Pokorny seg̑h‑ 888.]

r448_ ‌ ‌ sek-
To cut.
Derivatives include scythe , Saxon , skin , insect , and sickle.

scythe , from Old English sīthe, sigthe, sickle, from Germanic *segithō, sickle.
Suffixed o-grade form *sok-ā‑. saw ¹; hacksaw , from Old English sagu, sage, saw, from Germanic *sagō, a cutting tool, saw.
Suffixed o-grade form *sok-yo‑. sedge , from Old English secg, sedge, from Germanic *sagjaz, "sword," plant with a cutting edge.
Suffixed o-grade form *sok-so‑.
1. zax , from Old English seax, knife, from Germanic *sahsam, knife, sword;
2. Saxon , from Late Latin Saxō (plural Saxonēs), a Saxon, from West Germanic tribal name *Saxon‑, Saxon, traditionally (but doubtfully) regarded as from Germanic *sahsam (as if "warrior with knives").
Extended root *skend‑, to peel off, flay. skin , from Old Norse skinn, skin, from Germanic *skinth‑.
Basic form *sek‑.
1. secant , -sect , sectile , section , sector , segment ; dissect , insect , intersect , resect , transect , from Latin secāre, to cut;
2. extispicy , from Latin extispex, diviner who observes entrails, from exta, entrails, perhaps contracted from *exsecta, things cut out, from secāre, to cut (-spex, "he who sees"; see spek- ).
Lengthened-grade form *sēk‑. sickle , from Latin sēcula, sickle.
Possible suffixed variant form *sak-so‑. sassafras ; saxicolous , saxifrage , from Latin saxum, stone (< "broken-off piece"?).

||[Pokorny 2. sē̆k‑ 895, sken-(d‑) 929.]
See also extended roots skei- , sker- ¹.

r449_ ‌ ‌ sek^w-¹
To follow.
Derivatives include sequel , execute , pursue , and society.

sect , segue , seguidilla , sequacious , sequel , sequence , sue , suit , suite , suitor ; consequent , ensue , execute , obsequious , persecute , prosecute , pursue , subsequent , from Latin sequī, to follow.
sequester , sequestrum , from Latin sequester, "follower," mediator, depositary.
Suffixed (participial) form *sek^w-ondo‑. second ², secondo , secundines , from Latin secundus, following, coming next, second.
Suffixed form *sek^w-os, following. extrinsic , intrinsic , from Latin secus, along, alongside of.
Suffixed form *sek^w-no‑. scarlet , scarlatina , seal ¹, segno , sigil , sign ; assign , consign , designate , insignia , resign , from Latin signum, identifying mark, sign (< "standard that one follows").
Suffixed o-grade form *sok^w-yo‑. sociable , social , society , socio- ; associate , consociate , dissociate , from Latin socius, ally, companion (< "follower").

||[Pokorny 1. sek^u̯‑ 896.]

r450_ ‌ ‌ sek^w-²
To perceive, see.

see ¹, from Old English sēon, to see, from Germanic *sehwan, to see.
sight , from Old English sihth, gesiht, vision, spectacle, from Germanic abstract noun *sih-tiz.

||[Pokorny 2. sek^u̯‑ 897.]

r451_ ‌ ‌ sek^w-³
To say, utter.

O-grade form *sok^w‑.
1. Suffixed form *sok^w-yo‑. say ; gainsay , from Old English secgan, to say, from Germanic *sagjan;
2. suffixed form *sok^w-ā‑.
  1. saw ², from Old English sagu, a saying, speech;
  2. saga , from Old Norse saga, a saying, narrative. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sagō, a saying.
Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *sk^w-e-tlo‑, narration.
1. skald , from Old Norse skāld, poet, "satirist";
2. scold , from Middle English scolde, an abusive person, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse skāld (see above). Both a and b from North Germanic *skathla.

|| ||[Pokorny 2. sek^u̯‑ 897.]

r452_ ‌ ‌ sel-
To jump.

Suffixed zero-grade form *sal-yo‑.
1. salacious , salient , sally , salto , sauté ; assail , assault , desultory , dissilient , exult , insult , resile , result , somersault , from Latin salīre, to leap;
2. halter ², from Greek hallesthai, to leap, jump.
Probably Latin salmō (borrowed from Gaulish), salmon (< "the leaping fish") salmon .

||[Pokorny 4. sel‑ 899.]

r453_ ‌ ‌ sem-¹
One; also adverbially "as one," together with.
Derivatives include simultaneous , hyphen , acolyte , and simple.

Full-grade form *sem‑.
1. 1. hendecasyllabic , hendiadys , henotheism , hyphen , from Greek heis (< nominative singular masculine *hen-s < *hem-s), one;
  2. Greek he‑ in hekaton, one hundred (? dissimilated from *hem-katon; see dekm̥ ). Both a and b from Greek *hem‑.
2. Suffixed form *sem-el‑. simultaneous ; assemble , ensemble , from Latin simul, at the same time.
3. Suffixed form *sem-golo‑. single , from Latin singulus, alone, single.
4. Compound *sem-per‑ (*per, during, for; see per ¹). sempre ; sempervivum , sempiternal , from Latin semper, always, ever (< "once for all").
O-grade form *som‑.
1. bonze , kalanchoe , sambal , samhita , samsara , sandhi , sangha , Sankhya , sannyasi , Sanskrit , from Sanskrit sam, together.
2. Suffixed form *som-o‑.
  1. same , from Old Norse samr, same, from Germanic *samaz, same;
  2. homeo- , homo- ; anomalous , from Greek homos, same;
  3. homily , from Greek homīlos, crowd.
3. Suffixed form *som-alo‑. homolographic , from Greek homalos, like, even, level.
Lengthened o-grade form *sōm‑.
1. Suffixed form *sōm-i‑. seem , seemly , from Old Norse sœ̄mr, fitting, agreeable (< "making one," "reconciling"), from Germanic *sōmiz.
2. Suffixed lengthened o-grade form *sōm-o‑. samizdat , samovar , from Russian sam(o)‑, self.
Zero-grade form *sm̥‑.
1. acolyte , anacoluthon , from Greek compound akolouthos, accompanying (-kolouthos, from o-grade of keleuthos, way, path), from ha‑, a‑, together.
2. Compound form *sm̥-plo‑ (*-plo‑,-fold; see pel- ²).
  1. simple , from Latin simplus, simple;
  2. haploid , haplorrhine , from Greek haploos, haplous, single, simple.
3. Suffixed form *sm̥m-o‑.
  1. some , from Old English sum, one, a certain one;
  2. -some ¹, from Old English -sum, -like. Both a and b from Germanic *sumaz.
4. Suffixed form *sm̥m-alo‑. similar ; assimilate , resemble , from Latin similis, of the same kind, like.
5. Compound *sm̥-kēro‑, of one growing (see ker- ²).
6. Suffixed form *sm̥-tero‑. hetero- , from Greek heteros (earlier hateros), one of two, other.
7. Compound *sm̥-plek‑, "one-fold," simple (*-plek‑,-fold; see plek- ). semplice , simplex , simplicity , from Latin simplex, simple.
8. Extended form *sm̥ma. hamadryad , from Greek hama, together with, at the same time.

||[Pokorny 2. sem‑ 902.]

r454_ ‌ ‌ sem-²
Also semə-.
Summer. (oldest form *semh₂‑).

Suffixed zero-grade form *sm̥ə-aro‑. summer ¹, from Old English sumor, summer, from Germanic *sumaraz.
Suffixed zero-grade form *sm̥ə-oni‑. Samhain , from Old Irish samain, Samhain (for the discrepancy in time of occurrence, Samhain taking place in the autumn, compare English Indian summer).

||[Pokorny 3. sem‑ 905.]

r455_ ‌ ‌ sēmi-
Half‑, as first member of a compound.

sand-blind , from Old English sām‑, half, from Germanic *sēmi‑.
semi- , from Latin sēmi‑, half.
sesqui- , sesterce , from Latin sēmis, half.
hemi- , from Greek hēmi‑, half.

||[Pokorny sēmi‑ 905.]

r456_ ‌ ‌ sen-
Old.

seignior , senate , senectitude , senescent , senile , senior , senopia , señor , signore , signory , sir , sire , surly , from Latin senex, old, an elder.
shanachie , from Old Irish sen, old.

||[Pokorny sen(o)‑ 907.]

r457_ ‌ ‌ seng^wh-
To sing, make an incantation.

1. sing , from Old English singan, to sing;
2. Meistersinger , minnesinger , singspiel , from Old High German singan, to sing. Both a and b from Germanic *singan.
Suffixed o-grade form *song^wh-o‑, singing, song. song , from Old English sang, song, song, from Germanic *sangwaz.

||[Pokorny seng^u̯h‑ 906.]

r458_ ‌ ‌ sent-
To head for, go.

widdershins , from Old High German sin(d), direction, from Germanic form *sinthaz.
Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *sont-eyo‑. send ¹, from Old English sendan, to send, from Germanic *sandjan, to cause to go.
Suffixed o-grade form *sont-o‑. godsend , from Old English sand, message, messenger, from Germanic *sandaz, that which is sent.
Perhaps suffixed form *sent-yo‑. scent , sense , sensillum , sentence , sentient , sentiment , sentinel ; assent , consent , dissent , presentiment , resent , sensu lato , sensu stricto , from Latin sentīre, to feel (< "to go mentally").

||[Pokorny sent‑ 908.]

r459_ ‌ ‌ sep-
To taste, perceive. Suffixed zero-grade form *sap-yo‑.

: sage ¹, sapid , sapient , sapor , savant , savor , savvy ; insipid , from Latin sapere, to taste, have taste, be wise.

||[Pokorny sap‑ 880.]

r460_ ‌ ‌ septm̥
Seven.

seven ; seventeen , seventy , from Old English seofon, seven, with derivatives (hund)seofontig, seventy, and seofontīne, seventeen (-tīne, ten; see dekm̥ ), from Germanic *sebum.
September , septennial , septet , Septuagint , septuple ; septentrion , from Latin septem, seven.
hebdomad , hepta- , heptad , from Greek hepta, seven.

||[Pokorny septm̥ 909.]

r461_ ‌ ‌ ser-¹
To protect.

Extended form *serw‑. conserve , observe , preserve , reserve , reservoir , from Latin servāre, to keep, preserve.
Perhaps suffixed lengthened-grade form *sēr-ōs‑. hero , from Greek hērōs, "protector," hero.

||[Pokorny 2. ser‑ 910.]

r462_ ‌ ‌ ser-²
To line up.

series , sertularian ; assert , desert ³, dissertate , exert , exsert , insert , from Latin serere, to arrange, attach, join (in speech), discuss.
Suffixed form *ser-mon‑. sermon , from Latin sermō (stem sermōn‑), speech, discourse.
Perhaps suffixed form *ser-ā‑. sear ², serried , from Latin sera, a lock, bolt, bar (? < "that which aligns").
Suffixed zero-grade form *sr̥-ti‑. sorcerer , sort ; assort , consort , ensorcell , sortilege , from Latin sors (stem sort‑), lot, fortune (perhaps from the lining up of lots before drawing).

||[Pokorny 4. ser‑ 911.]

r463_ ‌ ‌ seuə-¹
To give birth. Oldest form *suh_{x_-.}

: Suffixed zero-grade form in derivative noun *su(h_x)-nu‑, son. son , from Old English sunu, son, from Germanic *sunuz.

||[Pokorny 2. seu‑ 913.]
See also sū- .

r464_ ‌ ‌ seuə-²
To take liquid. Oldest form *suh_{x_-.}
Derivatives include soup , soak , and succulent.

Suffixed zero-grade form *suə-yo‑, contracted to *sū-yo‑. hyetal ; isohyet , from Greek hūetos, rain, from hūein, to rain.
Possible extended zero-grade form *sūb‑.
1. 1. sup ¹, from Old English sūpan, sūpian, to drink, sip;
  2. soup , sup ², from Old French soup(e), soup;
  3. sopaipilla , from Old Spanish sopa, food soaked in liquid. a-c all from Germanic *sūp‑.
2. 1. sop , from Old English sopp‑ in soppcuppe, cup for dipping bread in, from Germanic *supp‑;
  2. sip , from Middle English sippen, to sip, from a source probably akin to Low German sippen, to sip, possibly from Germanic *supp‑.
Possible extended zero-grade form *sūg‑.
1. suck , from Old English sūcan, to suck, from Germanic *sūk‑.
2. soak , from Old English socian, to steep, from Germanic shortened form *sukōn.
3. suction , suctorial ; prosciutto , from Latin sūgere, to suck.
4. Variant form *sūk‑. succulent , from Latin sūcus, succus, juice.

||[Pokorny 1. seu‑ 912.]

r465_ ‌ ‌ skand-
Also skend-.
To leap, climb.

scan , scandent , scansion , scansorial , scantling ; ascend , condescend , descend , transcend , from Latin scandere, to climb.
Suffixed form *skand-alo‑. scandal , slander , from Greek skandalon, a snare, trap, stumbling block.
Suffixed form *skand-slā‑. echelon , escalade , scale ², from Latin scālae, steps, ladder.

||[Not in Pokorny; compare Sanskrit skandati, he jumps, and Old Irish scendim, I jump.]

r466_ ‌ ‌ skei-
To cut, split. Extension of sek- .
Derivatives include science , nice , shit , schism , sheath , ski , and esquire.

1. shin ¹, from Old English scinu, shin, shinbone (< "piece cut off");
2. chine , from Old French eschine, backbone, piece of meat with part of the backbone. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *ski-nō‑.
science , scilicet , sciolism ; adscititious , conscience , conscious , nescience , nice , omniscient , plebiscite , prescient , from Latin scīre, to know (< "to separate one thing from another," "discern.").
Suffixed zero-grade form *skiy-enā‑. skean , from Old Irish scīan, knife.
Extended root *skeid‑.
1. 1. shit ; gobshite , from Old English *scītan, to defecate;
  2. skate ³; blatherskite , from Old Norse skīta, to defecate;
  3. shyster , from Old High German skīzzan, to defecate. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *skītan, to separate, defecate.
2. suffixed zero-grade form *sk(h)id-yo‑. schism , schist , schizo- , from Greek skhizein, to split;
3. nasalized zero-grade form *ski-n-d‑. scission ; exscind , prescind , rescind , from Latin scindere, to split.
Extended root *skeit‑.
1. 1. shed ¹, shoddy , from Old English scēadan, to separate, from Germanic *skaith‑, *skaidan;
  2. sheath , from Old English scēath, sheath (< "split stick"), perhaps from Germanic *skaith‑.
2. ski , from Old Norse skīdh, log, stick, snowshoe, from Germanic *skīdam;
3. o-grade form *skoit‑. écu , escudo , escutcheon , esquire , scudo , scutum , squire , from Latin scūtum, shield (< "board").
Extended root *skeip‑.
1. sheave ², from Middle English sheve, pulley (< "piece of wood with grooves");
2. skive ¹, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse skīfa, to slice, split;
3. shiver ², from Middle English shivere, scivre, splinter, possibly from a Low German source akin to Middle Low German schever, splinter. a-c all from Germanic *skif‑.

||[Pokorny skē̆i‑ 919.]

r467_ ‌ ‌ skel-¹
Also kel-.
To cut.
Derivatives include scalp , skill , cutlass , half , scalpel , and sculpture.

1. shell , from Old English scell, sciel, shell;
2. scagliola , from Italian scaglia, chip. Both a and b from Germanic *skaljō, piece cut off, shell, scale.
1. shale , from Old English sc(e)alu, husk, shell;
2. scale ¹, from Old French escale, husk, shell. Both a and b from Germanic *skalō.
1. scall , from Old Norse skalli, bald head (< "closely shaved skull");
2. scalp , from Middle English scalp, top of the head, from a source akin to Old Norse skalpr, sheath, shell. Both a and b from Germanic *skal‑.
scale ³, skoal , from Old Norse skāl, bowl, drinking vessel (made from a shell), from Germanic *skēlō.
shield , from Old English scield, shield (< "board"), from Germanic *skelduz.
1. skill , from Old Norse skil, reason, discernment, knowledge (< "incisiveness");
2. sheldrake , from Middle English scheld, variegated, from a Low German source akin to Middle Dutch schillen, to diversify, with past participle schillede, separated, variegated. Both a and b from Germanic *skeli‑.
school ², shoal ², from Middle Low German schōle, troop, or Middle Dutch scōle, both from Germanic *skulō, a division.
Suffixed variant form *kel-tro‑. coulter , cultrate , cutlass , from Latin culter, knife.
Suffixed zero-grade form *skl̥-yo‑. scalene , from Greek skallein, to stir up, hoe (> skalenos, uneven).
Extended root *skelp‑.
1. shelf , from Middle Low German schelf, shelf (< "split piece of wood"), from Germanic *skelf‑;
2. possibly Germanic *halbaz (< variant root *kelp‑), divided. half , halve , from Old English healf, half;
3. perhaps variant *skalp‑. scalpel , sculpture , from Latin scalpere, to cut, scrape, with derivative sculpere (originally as the combining form of scalpere), to carve.

||[Pokorny 1. (s)kel‑ 923.]

r468_ ‌ ‌ skel-²
To be under an obligation. O-grade (perfect) form *skol‑.

: shall , from Old English sceal (used with the first and third person singular pronouns), shall, from Germanic *skal, I owe, hence I ought.

||[Pokorny 2. (s)kel‑ 927.]

r469_ ‌ ‌ sker-¹
Also ker-.
To cut.
Derivatives include shears , scabbard , skirmish , carnage , sharp , scrape , and screw.

Basic form *sker‑, *ker‑.
1. 1. shear , from Old English scieran, sceran, to cut;
  2. sheer ¹, from Low German scheren, to move to and fro, and Dutch scheren, to withdraw, depart. Both a and b from Germanic *skeran.
2. 1. share ², from Old English scēar, plowshare;
  2. share ¹, from Old English scearu, scaru, portion, division (but recorded only in the sense of "fork of the body," "tonsure"). Both a and b from Germanic *skeraz.
3. 1. shear , from Old English scēar, scissors, from Germanic *skēr-ō and *sker-ez‑;
  2. compound *skēr-berg‑, "sword protector," scabbard (*berg‑, protector; see bhergh- ¹). scabbard , from Old French escauberc, scabbard, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Old High German scarberc, scabbard. Both a and b from Germanic *skēr‑.
4. score , from Old Norse skor, notch, tally, twenty, from Germanic *skur‑.
5. scar ², skerry , from Old Norse sker, low reef (< "something cut off"), from Germanic suffixed form *skar-jam.
6. Suffixed o-grade extended form *skorp-o‑. scarf ², from Old Norse skarfr, diagonally-cut end of a board, from Germanic *skarfaz.
7. Suffixed o-grade extended form *skord-o‑. shard , from Old English sceard, a cut, notch, from Germanic *skardaz.
8. Extended form *skerd‑ in suffixed zero-grade form *skr̥d-o‑.
  1. short , from Old English scort, sceort, "cut," short;
  2. shirt , from Old English scyrte, skirt (< "cut piece");
  3. skirt , from Old Norse skyrta, shirt. a-c all from Germanic *skurtaz.
9. 1. Scaramouch , scrimmage , skirmish , from Old French eskermir, to fight with a sword, fence, and Old Italian scaramuccia, skirmish, from a source akin to Old High German skirmen, to protect;
  2. screen , from Middle Dutch scherm, shield. Both a and b from Germanic extended form *skerm‑.
10. Variant form *kar‑. carnage , carnal , carnassial , carnation , carnival , carrion , caruncle , charnel , crone ; carne asada , carnivorous , carnosaur , charcuterie , incarnate , from Latin carō (stem carn‑), flesh.
11. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-yo‑. coriaceous , corium , cuirass , currier ; excoriate , from Latin corium, leather (originally "piece of hide").
12. Suffixed zero-grade form *kr̥-to‑. curt , curtal , kirtle , from Latin curtus, short.
13. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-mo‑. corm , from Greek kormos, a trimmed tree trunk.
14. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-i‑. coreopsis , from Greek koris, bedbug (< "cutter").
15. Suffixed zero-grade form *skr̥-ā‑. shore ¹, from Old English scora, shore, from Germanic *skur-ō.
Extended roots *skert‑, *kert‑.
1. Zero-grade form *kr̥t‑ or o-grade form *kort‑. cortex ; decorticate , from Latin cortex, bark (< "that which can be cut off").
2. Suffixed form *kert-snā‑. cenacle , from Latin cēna, meal (< "portion of food").
Extended root *skerp‑. scurf , probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old English sceorf, scab, scurf, from Germanic *skerf‑.
Extended root *skerb(h)‑, *skreb(h)‑.
1. 1. sharp , from Old English scearp, sharp;
  2. scarp , from Italian scarpa, embankment, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Gothic skarpō, pointed object. Both a and b from Germanic *skarpaz, cutting, sharp.
2. 1. scrap ¹, from Old Norse skrap, "pieces," remains;
  2. scrape , from Old Norse skrapa, to scratch. Both a and b from Germanic *skrap‑.
3. 1. scrabble , from Middle Dutch schrabben, to scrape;
  2. scrub ¹, from Middle Dutch schrobben, to scrape. Both a and b from Germanic *skrab‑.
4. shrub ¹, from Old English scrybb, shrub (< "rough plant"), from Germanic *skrub‑.
5. scrobiculate , from Latin scrobis, trench, ditch.
6. screw , scrofula , from Latin scrōfa, a sow (< "rooter, digger").
Extended root *(s)kers‑. bias , from Greek epikarsios, at an angle (epi‑, at; see epi ), from suffixed zero-grade form *kr̥s-yo‑.

||[Pokorny 4. (s)ker‑, Section I. 938.]

r470_ ‌ ‌ sker-²
Also ker-.
To turn, bend. Presumed base of a number of distantly related derivatives.
Derivatives include shrink , ranch , rink , curve , crepe , circle , search , and crown.

Extended form *(s)kreg‑ in nasalized form *(s)kre-n-g‑.
1. shrink , from Old English scrincan, to wither, shrivel up, from Germanic *skrink‑;
2. variant *kre-n-g‑.
  1. ruck ², from Old Norse hrukka, a crease, fold;
  2. flounce ¹, from Old French fronce, pleat, from Frankish *hrunkjan, to wrinkle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *hrunk‑.
Extended form *(s)kregh‑ in nasalized form *skre-n-gh‑.
1. ring ¹, from Old English hring, a ring;
2. ranch , range , rank ¹, rink ; arrange , derange , from Old French renc, reng, line, row;
3. ringhals , from Middle Dutch rinc (combining form ring‑), a ring. a-c all from Germanic *hringaz, something curved, circle.
Extended form *kreuk‑.
1. ridge , from Old English hrycg, spine, ridge;
2. rucksack , from Old High German hrukki, back. Both a and b from Germanic hrugjaz.
Suffixed variant form *kur-wo‑. curb , curvature , curve , curvet , from Latin curvus, bent, curved.
Suffixed extended form *kris-ni‑. crinoline , from Latin crīnis (< *crisnis), hair.
Suffixed extended form *kris-tā‑. crest , crista , cristate , from Latin crista, tuft, crest.
Suffixed extended form *krip-so‑. crepe , crisp , crispate , from Latin crispus (metathesized from *cripsus), curly.
Extended expressive form *krīss‑. crissum , from Latin crīsāre, (of women) to wiggle the hips during copulation.
Perhaps reduplicated form *ki-kr-o‑. cerclage , circa , circadian , circinate , Circinus , circle , circum- , circus , cirque , search ; cricoid , recherché , from Greek kirkos, krikos, a ring.
Suffixed o-grade form *kor-ōno‑. corona , crown , koruna , krona ¹, krona ², krone ¹, krone ², from Greek korōnos, curved.
Suffixed variant form *kur-to. kurtosis , from Greek kurtos, convex.

||[Pokorny 3. (s)ker‑ 935.]

r471_ ‌ ‌ sker-³
Excrement, dung. Oldest form *sk̑er‑, becoming *sker‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed unextended form *sk-ōr, alternating with *sk-n̥‑.
1. scato- , scoria , skatole , from Greek skōr (stem skat‑ < *sk-n̥-t‑), dung;
2. skarn , from Old Norse skarn, dung, from Germanic skar‑, alternating with skn̥‑.
Extended form *skert‑ in taboo metathesis *sterk-os‑.
1. stercoraceous , from Latin stercus, dung;
2. variant forms *(s)terg‑, *(s)treg‑. dreck , from Middle High German drëc, dung, from Germanic *threkka‑.

||[Pokorny sk̑er-(d‑) 947, 8. (s)ter‑ 1031.]

r472_ ‌ ‌ (s)keu-
To cover, conceal. Zero-grade form *(s)ku‑. Variant *(s)keuə‑, zero-grade form *(s)kuə‑, contracted to *(s)kū‑.
Derivatives include sky , meerschaum , scum , obscure , recoil , and hoard.

Suffixed basic form.
1. sky , from Old Norse skȳ, cloud;
2. skewbald , from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse skȳ, cloud. Both a and b from Germanic *skeu-jam, cloud ("cloud cover").
Zero-grade form *skū‑.
1. Suffixed form *skū-mo‑.
  1. skim , from Old French escume, scum;
  2. meerschaum , from Old High German scūm, scum;
  3. scum , from Middle Dutch schūm, scum. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *skūmaz, foam, scum (< "that which covers the water").
2. suffixed form *skū-ro‑. obscure ; chiaroscuro , from Latin obscūrus, "covered," dark (ob‑, away from; see epi ).
Zero-grade form *kū̆‑.
1. Suffixed form *kū-ti‑. hide ², from Old English hȳd, skin, hide, from Germanic *hūdiz;
2. suffixed form *ku-ti‑. cutaneous , cuticle , cutis ; cutin , from Latin cutis skin;
3. possibly suffixed form *kū-lo‑. culet , culotte ; bascule , recoil , from Latin cūlus, the rump, backside;
4. suffixed form *ku-to‑. -cyte , cyto- , from Greek kutos, a hollow, vessel.
Extended zero-grade form *kus‑.
1. 1. hose , hosel , from Old English hosa, hose, covering for the leg;
  2. lederhosen , from Old High German hosa, leg covering. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *husōn‑.
2. suffixed form *kuz-dho‑ (or suffixed extended form *kudh-to‑).
  1. hoard , from Old English hord, stock, store, treasure (< "thing hidden away"), from Germanic *huzdam;
  2. compound *kuzdho-zd‑, "sitting (over) a treasure" (*-zd‑, sitting; see sed- ). custody , from Latin custōs, guard.
3. kishke , from Russian kishka, gut (< "sheath").
Suffixed extended zero-grade form *kut-no‑. cunnilingus , from Latin cunnus, vulva (< "sheath").
Extended root *keudh‑.
1. hide ¹, from Old English hȳdan, to hide, cover up, from Germanic suffixed lengthened zero-grade form *hūd-jan;
2. hut , from French hutte, hut, from Germanic suffixed zero-grade form *hūd-jōn‑;
3. huddle , from Low German hudeln, to crowd together, probably from Germanic *hū̆d‑.
shieling , from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse skāli, hut, from Germanic suffixed o-grade form *skaw-ala‑.

||[Pokorny 2. (s)keu‑ 951.]

r473_ ‌ ‌ skeud-
To shoot, chase, throw.
Derivatives include shoot , shut , and scuttle. ¹

shoot , from Old English scēotan, to shoot, from Germanic *skeutan, to shoot.
1. shot ¹, from Old English sceot, scot, shooting, a shot;
2. schuss , from Old High German scuz, shooting, a shot;
3. scot , scot and lot , from Old Norse skot and Old French escot, contribution, tax (< "money thrown down");
4. wainscot , from Middle Dutch sc(h)ot, crossbar, wooden partition. a-d all from Germanic *skutaz, shooting, shot.
shut , from Old English scyttan, to shut (by pushing a crossbar), probably from Germanic *skutjan.
shuttle , from Old English scytel, a dart, missile, from Germanic *skutilaz.
1. sheet ², from Old English scēata, corner of a sail;
2. sheet ¹, from Old English scēte, piece of cloth. Both a and b from Germanic *skautjōn‑.
1. scout ², from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse skūta, mockery (< "shooting of words");
2. shout , from Old Norse skūta, a taunt. Both a and b from Germanic *skut‑.

||[Pokorny 2. (s)keud‑ 955.]

r474_ ‌ ‌ skrībh-
To cut, separate, sift. Extension of sker- ¹.

scribble , scribe , script , scriptorium , scripture , serif , shrive ; ascribe , circumscribe , conscript , describe , festschrift , inscribe , manuscript , postscript , prescribe , proscribe , rescript , subscribe , superscribe , transcribe , from Latin scrībere, to scratch, incise, write.
scarify ¹, from Greek skarīphos, scratching, sketch, pencil.

||[Pokorny 4. (s)ker‑, Section II. 945.]

r475_ ‌ ‌ slēb-
To be weak, sleep. Possibly related to slēg- , through a hypothetical base *slē‑ (< earlier *sleə₁‑).

: sleep , from Old English slǣpan, to sleep, and slǣp, sleep, from Germanic *slēpan, *slēpaz.

|| ||[Pokorny lē̆b‑ 655.]

r476_ ‌ ‌ slēg-
Also lēg-.
To be slack, be languid. Possibly related to slēb- through a hypothetical base *slē‑ (< earlier *sleə₁‑). Zero-grade form *sləg‑, becoming *slag‑.

slack ¹, from Old English slæc, "loose," indolent, careless, from Germanic *slak‑.
Suffixed form *lag-so‑. lax , lease , lessor ; relax , release , relish , from Latin laxus, loose, slack.
Suffixed nasalized form *la-n-g-u‑. laches , languid , languish , lush ¹, from Latin languēre, to be languid.
Compound *lag-ous‑, "with drooping ears" (*ous‑, ear; see ous- ). lagomorph , from Greek lagōs, lagos, hare.
Suffixed form *lag-no‑. algolagnia , from Greek lagnos, lustful, lascivious.
Basic form *slēg‑. catalectic , from Greek lēgein, to leave off.

||[Pokorny (s)lēg‑ 959.]

r477_ ‌ ‌ sleiə-
Bluish.

O-grade form *sloi(ə)‑. sloe , from Old English slāh, slā, sloe (< "bluish fruit"), from Germanic *slaihwōn.
Zero-grade form *slī‑ (contracted from *sliə‑).
1. Suffixed form *slī-wo‑. lavender , livid , from Latin līvēre, to be bluish;
2. Suffixed form *slī-wā‑. slivovitz , from Serbo-Croatian šljìva, plum.

||[Pokorny (s)lī‑ 965.]

r478_ ‌ ‌ sleubh-
To slide, slip.
Derivatives include sleeve , lubricate , and slop. ¹

Basic form *sleubh‑.
1. sleeve , from Old English slēf, slīf, slīef, sleeve (into which the arm slips), from Germanic *sleub‑.
2. sloven , from Middle Low German slôven, to put on clothes carelessly, from Germanic *slaubjan.
3. Suffixed form *sleubh-ro‑. lubricate , lubricity , lubricious , from Latin lūbricus, slippery.
Variant Germanic root form *sleup‑.
1. 1. slip ³; cowslip , oxlip , from Old English slypa, slyppe, slipa, slime, slimy substance;
  2. slop ¹, from Old English *sloppe, dung;
  3. slop ², from Old English (ofer)slop, surplice. a-c all from Germanic *slup‑.
2. sloop , from Middle Dutch slūpen, to glide.

||[Pokorny sleub(h)‑ 963.]

r479_ ‌ ‌ smei-
To laugh, smile.

smirk , from Old English smercian, to smile (with -k‑ formative), from Germanic reshaped forms *smer‑, *smar‑.
smile , from Middle English smilen, to smile, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Swedish smila, to smile, from Germanic extended form *smīl‑.
Suffixed form *smei-ro‑. marvel , miracle , mirage , mirror ; admire , from Latin mīrus, wonderful.
Prefixed zero-grade form *ko(m)-smi‑, smiling with (*ko‑,*kom‑, together; see kom ). comity , from Latin cōmis (< cosmis), courteous.

||[Pokorny 1. (s)mei‑ 967.]

r480_ ‌ ‌ (s)mer-¹
To remember.

Suffixed zero-grade form *mr̥-no‑. mourn , from Old English murnan, to mourn, from Germanic *murnan, to remember sorrowfully.
Reduplicated form *me-mor‑.
1. memorable , memorandum , memory ; commemorate , remember , from Latin memor, mindful.

||[Pokorny (s)mer‑ 969.]

r481_ ‌ ‌ (s)mer-²
To get a share of something.

Suffixed (stative) form *mer-ē‑. meretricious , merit ; demerit , emeritus , turmeric , from Latin merēre, merērī, to receive a share, deserve, serve.
Suffixed form *mer-o‑. -mer , -mere , meristem , mero- , -merous ; allomerism , dimer , isomer , monomer , polymer , trimer , from Greek meros (feminine meris), a part, division.

|| ||[Pokorny (s)mer‑ 969.]

r482_ ‌ ‌ snā-
To swim. Oldest form *sneh₂‑, colored to *snah₂‑, becoming *snā‑.

Extended form *snāgh‑. nekton , from Greek nēkhein, to swim.
Suffixed zero-grade form *(s)nə-to‑. natant , natation , natatorial , natatorium ; supernatant , from Latin nāre, to swim, and frequentative natāre, to swim.
chersonese , from Greek nēsos, island, attributed by some to this root (but more likely obscure).

||[Pokorny snā‑ 971.]
See also extension (s)nāu- .

r483_ ‌ ‌ (s)nāu-
To swim, flow, let flow, whence suckle. Oldest form *sneh₂u‑; colored to *snah₂u‑, becoming *(s)nāu‑. Extension of snā- .

Suffixed basic form *nāw-yo‑. naiad , from Greek Naias, fountain nymph, probably from nān, to flow.
Variant root form *(s)neu(ə)‑. neuston , from Greek nein, to swim.
Zero-grade form *(s)nū‑ (< *snuə‑) in suffixed form *nū-trī (with feminine agent suffix) nourish , nurse , nurture , nutrient , nutrify , nutriment , nutrition , nutritious , nutritive , from Latin nūtrīx, nurse, and nūtrīre, to suckle, nourish.

|| ||[Pokorny snā‑ 971.]

r484_ ‌ ‌ (s)nē-
Also nē-.
To spin, sew. Oldest form *(s)neh₁‑, becoming *(s)nē‑.

Suffixed form *nē-tlā‑. needle , from Old English nǣdl, needle, from Germanic *nēthlō.
Suffixed form *snē-mn̥. nemato- ; aglaonema , axoneme , chromonema , protonema , synaptinemal complex , treponema , from Greek nēma, thread.
Suffixed o-grade form *snō-tā‑. snood , from Old English snōd, headband, from Germanic *snōdō.

||[Pokorny (s)nē‑ 973.]

r485_ ‌ ‌ sneig^wh-
Snow; to snow.

Suffixed o-grade form *snoig^wh-o‑. snow , from Old English snāw‑, snow, from Germanic *snaiwaz.
Zero-grade form *snig^wh‑. névé , nival , niveous , from Latin nix, snow.

||[Pokorny sneig^u̯h‑ 974.]

r486_ ‌ ‌ (s)neəu-
Tendon, sinew. Oldest form *sneə₁u‑. Extension of (s)nē- . Suffixed form *(s)neəw-r̥‑, with further suffixes.

*neu-r-o‑. neuro- , neuron , neurula ; aponeurosis , from Greek neuron, sinew;
metathesized form *nerwo‑. nerve ; enervate , from Latin nervus, sinew.

||[Pokorny snēu‑ 977.]

r487_ ‌ ‌ so-
This, that (nominative). For other cases see to- .

the ¹, from Late Old English the, masculine demonstrative pronoun, replacing se (with th‑ from oblique forms; see to- ).
hoi polloi , from Greek ho, the.
Feminine form *syā‑. she , from Old English sēo, sīe, she, from Germanic *sjō.
Compound variant form *sei-ke (*-ke,"this"; see ko- ). sic ¹, from Latin sīc, thus, so, in that manner.

||[Pokorny so(s) 978.]

r488_ ‌ ‌ sol-
Also solə-.
Whole. (oldest form *solh₂‑).
Derivatives include solid , catholic , and salvo.

Basic form *sol‑.
1. Suffixed form *sol-ido‑. solder , soldier , solid , sou ; consolidate , from Latin solidus, solid.
2. Suffixed form *sol-wo‑. holo- ; catholic , from Greek holos, whole.
3. Dialectal geminated form *soll-o‑.
  1. solicit , solicitous ; insouciant , from Latin sollus, whole, entire, unbroken;
  2. solemn , from Latin sollemnis (second element obscure), celebrated at fixed dates (said of religious rites), established, religious, solemn.
Variant form *solə‑.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form sl̥ə-u‑ giving *sal-u‑. salubrious , salutary , salute , from Latin salūs, health, a whole or sound condition.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *sl̥ə-wo‑ giving *sala-wo‑. safe , sage ², salvage , salvo ¹, salvo ², save ¹, save ², from Latin salvus, whole, safe, healthy, uninjured.

||[Pokorny solo‑ 979.]

r489_ ‌ ‌ spē-
To thrive, prosper. Oldest form *speh₁‑, becoming *spē‑.

Suffixed o-grade form *spō-ti‑. speed ; Godspeed , from Old English spēd, success, from Germanic *spōdiz.
Suffixed form *spē-s‑. despair , esperance , from Latin spērāre, to hope, denominative of spēs (plural spērēs), hope.
Suffixed zero-grade form *spə-ro‑. prosper , from Latin prosperus, favorable, prosperous (traditionally regarded as from prō spērē, according to one's hope; prō, according to; see per ¹).

||[Pokorny 3. sp(h)ē(i)‑ 983.]

r490_ ‌ ‌ spek-
To observe. Oldest form *spek̑‑, becoming *spek‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include espionage , spectrum , despise , suspect , despicable , bishop , and telescope.

Basic form *spek‑.
1. 1. espy , spy , from Old French espier, to watch;
  2. espionage , from Old Italian spione, spy, from Germanic derivative *speh-ōn‑, watcher. Both a and b from Germanic *spehōn.
2. Suffixed form *spek-yo‑. specimen , spectacle , spectrum , speculate , speculum , spice ; aspect , circumspect , conspicuous , despise , expect , frontispiece , inspect , introspect , perspective , perspicacious , prospect , respect , respite , retrospect , spiegeleisen , suspect , transpicuous , from Latin specere, to look at.
3. species , specious ; especial , from Latin speciēs, a seeing, sight, form.
4. Suffixed form *spek-s, "he who sees," in Latin compounds.
  1. Latin extispex (see sek- );
  2. Latin haruspex (see gherə- );
  3. Latin auspex (see awi- ).
5. Suffixed form *spek-ā‑. despicable , from Latin (denominative) dēspicārī, to despise, look down on (dē‑, down; see de- ).
6. Suffixed metathetical form *skep-yo‑. skeptic , from Greek skeptesthai, to examine, consider.
Extended o-grade form *spoko‑. scope , -scope , -scopy ; bishop , episcopal , horoscope , telescope , from metathesized Greek skopos, one who watches, also object of attention, goal, and its denominative skopein (< *skop-eyo‑), to see.

||[Pokorny spek̑‑ 984.]

r491_ ‌ ‌ (s)pen-
To draw, stretch, spin.
Derivatives include spider , pansy , pendant ¹, appendix , penthouse , and spontaneous.

Basic form *spen‑.
1. Suffixed form *spen-wo‑.
  1. spider , spin , from Old English spinnan, to spin, and spīthra, spider, contracted from Germanic derivative *spin-thrōn‑, "the spinner";
  2. spindle , from Old English spinel, spindle, from Germanic derivative *spin-ilōn‑. Both a and b from Germanic *spinnan, to spin.
2. Extended form *pend‑. painter ², pansy , penchant , pendant ¹, pendentive , pendulous , pendulum , pensile , pension ¹, pensive , peso , poise ¹; antependium , append , appendix , avoirdupois , compendium , compensate , counterpoise , depend , dispense , expend , impend , penthouse , perpend , perpendicular , prepense , propend , recompense , stipend , suspend , vilipend , from Latin pendēre, to hang (intransitive), and pendere, to cause to hang, weigh, with its frequentative pēnsāre, to weigh, consider.
3. Perhaps suffixed form *pen-yā‑. -penia , from Greek peniā, lack, poverty (< "a strain, exhaustion").
4. geoponic , lithopone , from Greek ponos, toil, and ponein, to toil, o-grade derivatives of penesthai, to toil.
O-grade forms *spon‑, *pon‑.
1. 1. span ², spancel , from Middle Dutch spannen, to bind;
  2. spanner , from Old High German spannan, to stretch. Both a and b from Germanic *spannan.
2. span ¹, from Old English span(n), distance, from Germanic *spanno‑.
3. Perhaps Germanic *spangō. spangle , from Middle Dutch spange, clasp.
4. Suffixed and extended form *pond-o‑. pound ¹, from Latin pondō, by weight.
5. Suffixed and extended form *pond-es‑. ponder , ponderous ; equiponderate , preponderate , from Latin pondus (stem ponder‑), weight, and its denominative ponderāre, to weigh, ponder.
6. Suffixed o-grade form *spon-t‑. spontaneous , from Latin sponte, of one's own accord, spontaneously (but this is more likely related to the Germanic verb *spanan, to entice, from a homophonous root).

||[Pokorny (s)pen-(d‑) 988.]

r492_ ‌ ‌ spend-
To make an offering, perform a rite, hence to engage oneself by a ritual act. O-grade from *spond‑.

Suffixed form *spond-eyo‑. sponsor , spouse ; despond , espouse , respond , from Latin spondēre, to make a solemn promise, pledge, betroth.
Suffixed form *spond-ā‑. spondee , from Greek spondē, libation, offering.

||[Pokorny spend‑ 989.]

r493_ ‌ ‌ sper-
To strew.
Derivatives include sprawl , sperm ¹, and sporadic.

Zero-grade form *spr‑.
1. sprawl , from Old English sprēawlian, to sprawl, from Germanic *spr‑.
2. Extended form *spreud‑.
  1. sprout , from Old English -sprūtan, to sprout (only in ā-sprūtan, to sprout forth);
  2. spritz , spritzer , from Middle High German sprützen, to spurt, spray;
  3. sprit , from Old English sprēot, pole (< "sprout, stem");
  4. bowsprit , from Middle Low German bōchsprēt, bowsprit. a-d all from Germanic *sprūt‑.
3. Extended form *spreit‑. spray ², spread , from Old English -sprǣdan, to spread, from Germanic *spraidjan.
Basic form *sper‑.
1. Suffixed form *sper-yo‑. Diaspora , from Greek speirein, to scatter, with derivative sporā, a scattering, sowing (see III. 1.).
2. Suffixed form *sper-mn̥. sperm ¹, from Greek sperma, sperm, seed (< "that which is scattered").
O-grade form *spor‑.
1. Suffixed form *spor-ā‑. spore , sporo- , from Greek sporā, a sowing, seed.
2. Suffixed form *spor-n̥d‑. sporadic , from Greek sporas (stem sporad‑), scattered, dispersed.
Extended Germanic root *sprē(w)‑. spray ¹, from Middle Dutch spraeien, sprayen, to sprinkle, from Germanic *sprēwjan.

||[Pokorny 2. (s)p(h)er‑ 993.]

r494_ ‌ ‌ sperə-
Ankle. Oldest form *sperh₂‑. Zero-grade form *spr̥(ə)‑.

spur , from Old English spura, spora, spur, from Germanic suffixed form *spur-ōn‑.
Nasalized zero-grade form *spr̥-n-ə‑. spurn , from Old English spurnan, spornan, to kick, strike against, from Germanic *spurnōn.
spoor , from Middle Dutch spor, spoor, track of an animal, from Germanic suffixed form *spur-am.

||[Pokorny 1. sp(h)er‑ 992.]

r495_ ‌ ‌ sreu-
To flow.

Suffixed o-grade form *srou-mo‑.
1. stream , from Old English strēam, stream;
2. maelstrom , from Middle Dutch stroom, stream. Both a and b from Germanic *straumaz, stream.
Basic form *sreu‑.
1. rheo- , -rrhea ; catarrh , diarrhea , hemorrhoid , rhyolite , from Greek rhein, to flow, with o-grade rhoos, flowing, a flowing;
2. suffixed form *sreu-mn̥. rheum , from Greek rheuma, stream, humor of the body.
Suffixed zero-grade form *sru-dhmo‑. rhythm , from Greek rhuthmos, measure, recurring motion, rhythm.
Suffixed zero-grade form *sru-to‑. rhyton , from Greek rhutos, fluid, liquid.
Perhaps zero-grade extended form *srug‑. sastruga , from Russian struga, deep place.

||[Pokorny sreu‑ 1003.]

r496_ ‌ ‌ stā-
To stand; with derivatives meaning "place or thing that is standing. " Oldest form *steh₂‑, colored to *stah₂‑, contracted to *stā‑.
Derivatives include steed , stud ², arrest , instant , understand , static , prostitute , insist , ecstasy , and system.

Basic form *stā‑.
1. Extended form *stādh‑.
  1. steed , from Old English stēda, stallion, studhorse (< "place for breeding horses"), from Germanic *stōd-jōn‑;
  2. stud ², from Old English stōd, establishment for breeding horses, from Germanic *stōdō.
2. Suffixed form *stā-lo‑.
  1. stool , from Old English stōl, stool;
  2. Germanic compound *faldistōlaz (see pel- ²). Both a and b from Germanic *stōlaz.
3. estancia , stage , stance , stanch ¹, stanchion , stanza , stative , stator , stay ¹, stet ; arrest , circumstance , constant , contrast , cost , distant , extant , instant , obstacle , obstetric , oust , rest ², restharrow , restive , substance , from Latin stāre, to stand.
4. stir ², from Sanskrit ātiṣṭhati (stem ā-sthā‑), he stands by, remains on (ā‑, near, to, at).
5. Suffixed form *stā-men‑. etamine , stamen , stammel , from Latin stāmen, thread of the warp (a technical term).
6. Suffixed form *stā-mon‑. penstemon , from Greek stēmōn, thread.
7. Suffixed form *stā-ro‑. starets , from Old Church Slavonic starŭ, old ("long-standing").
Zero-grade form *stə‑ (before consonants).
1. Nasalized extended form *stə-n-t‑.
  1. stand , from Old English standan, to stand;
  2. understand , from Old English understandan, to know, stand under (under‑, under‑; see n̥dher );
  3. standard , from Frankish *standan, to stand;
  4. stound , from Old English stund, a fixed time, while, from secondary zero-grade form in Germanic *stund-ō. a-d all from Germanic *standan.
2. Suffixed form *stə-tyo‑. stithy , from Old Norse stedhi, anvil, from Germanic *stathjōn‑.
3. Suffixed form *stə-tlo‑. staddle , stall ², starling ²; stalwart , from Old English stathol, foundation, from Germanic *stathlaz.
4. Suffixed form *stə-mno‑.
  1. 1. stem ¹, from Old English stefn, stem, tree trunk;
    2. stalag , from Old High German stam, stem. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *stamniz.
  2. estaminet , probably from Walloon stamen, post to which a cow is tied at the feeding-trough, from a source derived from or akin to Germanic *stamniz.
5. Suffixed form *stə-ti‑.
  1. 1. stead , from Old English stede, place;
    2. stadholder , from Dutch stad, place;
    3. shtetl ; Lagerstätte , from Old High German stat, place. (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic *stadiz.
  2. stat ², from Latin statim, at once;
  3. station , from Latin statiō, a standing still;
  4. armistice , solstice , from Latin -stitium, a stoppage;
  5. stasis , from Greek stasis (see III. 1. b.), a standing, a standstill.
6. Suffixed form *stə-to‑.
  1. bestead , from Old Norse stadhr, place, from Germanic *stadaz, placed;
  2. -stat , static , statice , stato- ; astasia , astatine , from Greek statos, placed, standing.
7. Suffixed form *stə-no‑.
  1. destine , from Latin dēstināre, to make firm, establish (dē‑, thoroughly; see de- );
  2. obstinate , from Latin obstināre, to set one's mind on, persist (ob‑, on; see epi ).
8. Suffixed form *stə-tu‑. estate , étagère , stage , state , statistics , statue , stature , status , statute ; constitute , destitute , institute , prostitute , restitute , substitute , superstition , from Latin status, manner, position, condition, attitude, with derivatives statūra, height, stature, statuere, to set up, erect, cause to stand, and superstes (< *-stə-t‑), witness ("who stands beyond").
9. Suffixed form *stə-dhlo‑. stable ²; constable , from Latin stabulum, "standing place," stable.
10. Suffixed form *stə-dhli‑. establish , stable ¹, from Latin stabilis, standing firm.
11. Suffixed form *stə-tā. -stat ; enstatite , from Greek -statēs, one that causes to stand, a standing.
12. Suffixed form *stə-mno‑. stamnos , from Greek stamnos, stamnos (< "one that stands upright").
Zero-grade form *st‑, *st(ə)‑ (before vowels).
1. Reduplicated form *si-st(ə)‑.
  1. assist , consist , desist , exist , insist , interstice , persist , resist , subsist , from Latin sistere, to set, place, stop, stand;
  2. apostasy , catastasis , diastase , ecstasy , epistasis , epistemology , hypostasis , iconostasis , isostasy , metastasis , prostate , system , from Greek histanai (aorist stanai), to set, place, with stasis (*stə-ti‑), a standing (see II. 5. e.);
  3. histo- ; histiocyte , histogram , from Greek histos, web, tissue (< "that which is set up").
2. Compound form *tri-st-i‑, "third person standing by" (see trei- ).
3. Compound form *por-st-i‑, "that which stands before" (*por‑, before, forth; see per ¹). post ¹, from Latin postis, post.
4. Suffixed form *st-o‑ in compound *upo-st-o‑ (see upo ).
Extended root *stāu‑ (< *staəu‑), becoming *stau‑ before consonants, *stāw‑ before vowels; basic meaning "stout-standing, strong."
1. Suffixed extended form *stāw-ā‑. stow , from Old English stōw, place, from Germanic *stōwō.
2. Probable o-grade suffixed extended form *stōw-yā‑. stoa , stoic , from Greek stoā (also stoiā, stōiā), porch.
3. Suffixed extended form *stau-ro‑.
  1. 1. store ; instauration , from Latin īnstaurāre, to restore, set upright again (in‑, on; see en );
    2. restore , from Latin restaurāre, to restore, rebuild (re‑, anew, again; see re- ).
  2. staurolite , from Greek stauros, cross, post, stake.
4. Variant *tau-ro‑, bull (see tauro- ).
Zero-grade extended root *stū‑ (< *stuə‑). Suffixed form *stū-lo‑. stylite ; amphistylar , astylar , epistyle , hexastyle , hypostyle , octastyle , peristyle , prostyle , stylobate , from Greek stūlos, pillar.
Secondary full-grade form *steuə‑. Suffixed form *steuə-ro‑. Theravada , from Sanskrit sthavira‑, thick, stout, old.
Variant zero-grade extended root *stu‑. Suffixed form *stu-t‑. stud ¹, from Old English stuthu, studu, post, prop.
Secondary full-grade form *steu‑.
1. Suffixed form *steu-rā‑. starboard , from Old English stēor‑, a steering, from Germanic *steurō, "a steering.".
2. 1. steer ¹, from Old English stīeran, stēran, to steer;
  2. stern ², from Middle English sterne, stern of a boat, possibly from a source akin to Old Norse stjōrn, a rudder, a steering, derivative of stȳra, to steer. Both a and b from Germanic denominative *steurjan.
3. Suffixed form *steu-ro‑, a larger domestic animal. steer ², from Old English stēor, steer, from Germanic *steuraz, ox.
4. Probably Germanic diminutive *steur-ika‑. stirk , from Old English stīrc, stierc, calf.

||[Pokorny stā‑ 1004.]

r497_ ‌ ‌ stāi-
Stone. Oldest form possibly *steh₂i‑, colored to *stah₂i‑, becoming *stai‑ before consonants and *stāy‑ before vowels.

Suffixed o-grade form *stoi-no‑.
1. stone , from Old English stān;
2. steenbok , from Middle Dutch steen, stone;
3. tungsten , from Old Norse steinn, stone;
4. stein , from Old High German stein, stone. a-d all from Germanic *stainaz.
Possibly suffixed form *stāy-r̥ (earlier *staəy-r̥) stearic , stearin , steatite , steato- ; steapsin , from Greek stear, solid fat, suet.

||[Pokorny (s)tāi‑ 1010.]

r498_ ‌ ‌ (s)teg-
To cover.
Derivatives include thatch , thug , and detect.

O-grade form *tog‑.
1. 1. thatch , from Old English theccan, to cover;
  2. deck ², from Middle Dutch decken, to cover;
  3. deckle , from Old High German decchen, to cover. a-c all from Germanic *thakjan.
2. 1. thatch , from Old English thæc, thatch;
  2. deck ¹, from Middle Dutch dec, decke, roof, covering. Both a and b from Germanic *thakam.
3. Suffixed form *tog-ā‑, covering. toga , from Latin toga, toga.
4. Possibly Sanskrit sthagayati, he covers thug .
Basic form *steg‑. steganography , stegodon , stegosaurus , from Greek stegein, to cover.
Basic form *teg‑. tectrix , tectum , tegmen , tegmentum , tegular , tegument , tile , tuile , tuille ; detect , integument , obtect , protect , from Latin tegere, to cover, and tēgula, tile (with lengthened-grade root).

||[Pokorny 1. (s)teg‑ 1013.]

r499_ ‌ ‌ stegh-
To stick, prick; pointed.

Perhaps nasalized form *stengh‑. sting , from Old English stingan, to sting, from Germanic *stingan.
O-grade form *stogh‑.
1. stag , from Old English stagga, stag, from Germanic *stag‑;
2. stochastic , from Greek stokhos, pointed stake or pillar (used as a target for archers), goal.

||[Pokorny stegh‑ 1014.]

r500_ ‌ ‌ steig-
To stick; pointed. Partly blended with stegh- .
Derivatives include stitch , ticket , instinct , stigma , tiger , and steak.

Zero-grade form *stig‑.
1. stickleback , from Old English sticel, a prick, sting, from Germanic suffixed form *stik-ilaz.
2. Suffixed form *stig-i‑. stitch , from Old English stice, a sting, prick, from Germanic *stikiz.
3. stick , from Old English sticca, stick, from Germanic expressive form *stikkōn‑.
4. etiquette , ticket , from Old French estiquier, to stick, from Germanic stative *stikkēn, "to be stuck.".
5. snickersnee , from Middle Dutch steken, to stick, stab, from Germanic blended variant *stekan.
6. Nasalized zero-grade form *sti-n-g‑. distinguish , extinguish , instinct , from Latin stinguere, to quench, perhaps originally to prick, and its apparent derivative dīstinguere, to separate (phonological and semantic transitions obscure).
7. Suffixed form *stig-yo‑. stigma ; astigmatism , from Greek stizein, to prick, tattoo.
8. Suffixed reduced form *tig-ro‑. tiger , from Greek tigris, tiger (from its stripes), from the same Iranian source as Old Persian tigra‑, sharp, pointed, and Avestan tighri‑, arrow.
Basic form *(s)teig‑.
1. instigate , from Latin īnstīgāre, to urge, from -stīgāre, to spur on, prod.
2. raita , from Sanskrit tejate (verbal adjective tikta‑), it is sharp.
Suffixed o-grade form *stoig-ā‑. steak , from Old Norse steik, roast, steak, and steikja, to roast (on a spit), from Germanic *staikō.
Extended variant form *teigs‑.
1. thistle , from Old English thistel;
2. distelfink , from Old High German distil, thistle. Both a and b from Germanic *thistilaz, perhaps simplified from earlier *thīhstilaz.

||[Pokorny (s)teig‑ 1016.]

r501_ ‌ ‌ steigh-
To stride, step, rise.
Derivatives include stirrup , acrostic , and stair.

Basic form *steigh‑. sty ²; stirrup , from Old English stīgan, to go up, rise, from Germanic *stīgan.
Zero-grade form *stigh‑.
1. stile ¹, from Old English stigel, series of steps, from Germanic *stigila‑.
2. Suffixed form *stigh-to‑. stickle , from Old English stiht(i)an, to settle, arrange, from Germanic *stihtan, "to place on a step or base.".
3. Suffixed form *stigh-o‑. stich ; acrostic , cadastre , distich , hemistich , pentastich , stichometry , stichomythia , from Greek stikhos, row, line, line of verse.
O-grade form *stoigh‑.
1. Suffixed form *stoigh-ri‑. stair , from Old English stǣger, stair, step, from Germanic *staigrī.
2. stoichiometry , from Greek stoikheion, shadow line, element.

||[Pokorny steigh‑ 1017.]

r502_ ‌ ‌ stel-
To put, stand; with derivatives referring to a standing object or place.
Derivatives include apostle , stallion , pedestal , stilt , and stout.

Basic form *stel‑.
1. Suffixed form *stel-ni‑. still ¹, from Old English stille, quiet, fixed, from Germanic *stilli‑.
2. Suffixed form *stel-yo‑. apostle , diastole , epistle , peristalsis , systaltic , from Greek stellein, to put in order, prepare, send, make compact (with o-grade and zero-grade forms stol‑ and stal‑).
O-grade form *stol‑.
1. Suffixed form *stol-no‑.
  1. stall ¹; forestall , from Old English steall, standing place, stable;
  2. stale ¹; installment ¹, from Old French estal, place;
  3. stallion , from Anglo-Norman estaloun, stallion;
  4. pedestal , from Old Italian stallo, stall;
  5. install , from Medieval Latin stallum, stall;
  6. gestalt , from Old High German stellen, to set, place, from Germanic denominative *stalljan. a-f all from Germanic *stalla‑.
2. Suffixed form *stol-ōn‑. stolon , from Latin stolō, branch, shoot.
3. Suffixed form *stol-ido‑. stolid , from Latin stolidus, "firm-standing," stupid.
4. Suffixed form *stol-ā‑.
  1. stalk ¹, from Old English stalu, upright piece, stalk, from Germanic *stalō;
  2. stole ¹, from Greek stolē, garment, array, equipment.
Zero-grade form *stl̥‑.
1. Suffixed form *stl̥-to‑. stultify , from Latin stultus, foolish (< "unmovable, uneducated").
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *stl̥-no‑. stull , stollen , from Old High German stollo, post, support, from Germanic *stullōn‑.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *stal-nā‑. stele , from Greek stēlē, pillar.
Extended form *steld‑.
1. stilt , from Middle English stilte, crutch, stilt, from a source akin to Low German and Flemish stilte, stick, from Germanic *stiltjōn‑;
2. zero-grade form *stl̥d‑. stout , from Old French estout, stout, from Germanic *stult‑, "walking on stilts," strutting.

||[Pokorny 3. stel‑ 1019.]

r503_ ‌ ‌ (s)tenə-
To thunder. Oldest form *stenh₂‑.

Zero-grade form *stn̥ə‑.
1. thunder ; Thursday , from Old English thunor, thunder, Thor;
2. blunderbuss , dunderhead , from Middle Dutch doner, donder, thunder;
3. Thor , from Old Norse Thōrr (older form Thunarr), "thunder," thunder god. a-c all from Germanic *thunaraz.
O-grade form *tonə‑. tornado ; astonish , detonate , stun , from Latin tonāre, to thunder.

||[Pokorny 1. (s)ten‑ 1021.]

r504_ ‌ ‌ ster-¹
Stiff.
Derivatives include stare , starch , stork , starve , and torpedo.

O-grade form *stor‑.
1. Suffixed form *stor-ē‑. stare , from Old English starian, to stare, from Germanic *starēn.
2. Extended form *stor-g‑.
  1. stark , from Old English stearc, hard, severe, from Germanic *starkaz;
  2. starch , from Old English *stercan, to stiffen, from Germanic denominative *starkjan.
Full-grade form *ster‑.
1. stern ¹, from Old English stierne, styrne, firm, from Germanic *sternjaz.
2. Suffixed form *ster-ewo‑. stere , stereo- ; cholesterol , from Greek stereos, solid.
3. Lengthened-grade form *stēr‑. sterigma , from Greek stērizein, to support.
Zero-grade form *str̥‑.
1. Extended form *str̥g‑. stork , from Old English storc, stork (probably from the stiff movements of the bird), from Germanic *sturkaz.
2. strut , from Old English strūtian, to stand out stiffly, from Germanic *strūt‑.
Extended form *sterd‑.
1. redstart , stark-naked , from Old English steort, tail, from Germanic *stertaz.
2. 1. start , from Old English *styrtan, to leap up (< "move briskly, move stiffly");
  2. startle , from Old English steartlian, to kick, struggle. Both a and b from Germanic *stert‑.
Extended form *sterbh‑. starve , from Old English steorfan, to die (< "become rigid"), from Germanic *sterban.
Extended form *(s)terp‑ in suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *tr̥p-ē‑. torpedo , torpid , torpor , from Latin torpēre, to be stiff.

||[Pokorny 1. (s)ter‑ 1022.]

r505_ ‌ ‌ ster-²
Also sterə-.
To spread. Oldest forms *ster‑, *sterh₃‑.
Derivatives include destroy , industry , straw , street , and stratagem.

Extended form *streu‑.
1. strain ², from Old English strēon, something gained, offspring, from Germanic suffixed form *streu-nam.
2. structure ; construct , destroy , instruct , instrument , obstruct , substruction , from Latin struere, to pile up, construct.
3. Zero-grade form *stru‑. industry , from Latin industrius, diligent, from Archaic Latin indostruus (endo‑, within; see en ).
4. bremsstrahlung , from Old High German strāla, arrow, lightning bolt, from Germanic *strēlō.
O-grade extended form *strou‑.
1. Suffixed form *strou-eyo‑.
  1. strew , from Old English strē(o)wian, to strew;
  2. streusel , from Old High German strouwen, strowwen, to sprinkle, strew. Both a and b from Germanic *strawjan.
2. Suffixed form *strow-o‑. straw , from Old English strēaw, straw, from Germanic *strawam, "that which is scattered.".
O-grade extended form *stroi‑. perestroika , from Old Russian strojĭ, order.
Basic forms *ster‑, *sterə‑.
1. Nasalized form *ster-n-ə‑. estray , stratus , stray , street ; consternate , prostrate , substratum , from Latin sternere (past participle strātus from zero-grade *str̥ə-to‑), to stretch, extend.
2. Suffixed form *ster-no‑. sternum ; sternocleidomastoid , from Greek sternon, breast, breastbone.
Zero-grade form *str̥‑, *str̥ə‑.
1. Suffixed form *str̥-to‑. stratagem ; stratocracy , from Greek stratos, multitude, army, expedition.
2. Suffixed form *str̥ə-to‑. strath , from Old Irish srath, a wide river valley, from Celtic *s(t)rato‑.
3. Suffixed extended form *str̥ə-mn̥.
  1. stroma ; biostrome , stromatolite , from Greek strōma, mattress, bed;
  2. stramenopile , from Latin strāmen, straw strewn as bedding.

||[Pokorny 5. ster‑ 1029.]

r506_ ‌ ‌ ster-³
Star. Oldest form *h₂ster‑.

Suffixed form *ster-s‑. star , from Old English steorra, star, from Germanic *sterzōn‑.
Suffixed form *stēr-lā‑. stellar , stellate ; constellation , from Latin stēlla, star.
Basic form *əster‑. aster , asteriated , asterisk , asterism , asteroid , astral , astro- ; apastron , asteroseismology , astraphobia , disaster , periastron , from Greek astēr, star, with its derivative astron, star, and possible compound astrapē, asteropē, lightning, twinkling (< "looking like a star"; ōps, op‑, eye, appearance; see ok^w- ).
Esther ¹, perhaps from Persian sitareh, star, from Iranian stem *stā̆r‑ (or perhaps of Semitic origin; see ʿṯtr in Appendix II).

||[Pokorny 2. stē̆r‑ 1027.]

r507_ ‌ ‌ streb(h)-
To wind, turn. European root.

strepto- , strop , strophe , strophoid , strophulus ; anastrophe , apostrophe ¹, boustrophedon , catastrophe , diastrophism , epistrophe , strepsirrhine , from Greek strephein, to wind, turn, twist, with o-grade derivatives strophē, a turning, and strophion, headband.
Unaspirated o-grade form *strob‑. strobilus ; stroboscope , from Greek strobos, a whirling, whirlwind.
Unaspirated zero-grade form *str̥b‑. strabismus , strabotomy , from Greek strabos, squinting.

|| ||[Pokorny 1. (s)ter‑ 1022.]

r508_ ‌ ‌ streig-
To stroke, rub, press. European root.
Derivatives include streak , prestige , and restrict.

Basic form *streig‑.
1. 1. strike , from Old English strīcan, to stroke;
  2. tricot , from Old French estriquier, to strike. Both a and b from Germanic *strīkan.
2. strickle , from Old English stricel, implement for leveling grain, from Germanic diminutive *strik-ila‑.
3. streak , from Old English strica, stroke, line, from Germanic *strikōn‑.
O-grade form *stroig‑. stroke ¹, from Old English *strāc, stroke, from Germanic *straik‑.
Zero-grade form *strig‑.
1. Suffixed form *strig-ā‑. strigose , from Latin striga, row of grain, furrow drawn lengthwise over the field.
2. Suffixed form *strig-yā‑. stria , from Latin stria, furrow, channel.
3. Nasalized zero-grade form *stri-n-g‑. strain ¹, strait , stress , stretto , strict , stringendo , stringent ; astringent , constrain , distrain , distress , prestige , restrain , restrict , sensu stricto , from Latin stringere, to draw tight, press together.
4. strigil , from Latin strigilis, strigil, possibly akin to stringere.

||[Pokorny 1. streig‑, 2. streig‑ 1036, 4. ster‑ 1028.]

r509_ ‌ ‌ sū-
Pig. Oldest form *suh_x‑, becoming *sū‑; probably a derivative of seuə- ¹.

Suffixed form *suə-īno‑.
1. swine , from Old English swīn, swine;
2. keelson , from Old Norse svīn, swine. Both a and b from Germanic *swīnam.
Suffixed reduced form *su-kā‑.
1. 1. hog , from Old English hogg, hog, from British Celtic *hukk‑, from Celtic expressive form *sukko‑, swine, snout of a swine;
  2. socket , from Anglo-Norman soc, plowshare, perhaps from Celtic *sukko‑.
2. sow ², from Old English sugu, sow, from Germanic *sugō.
Basic form *sū‑. sow ², from Old English sū, from Germanic *sū‑.
soil ², from Latin sūs, pig.
Hyades , hyena ; hyoscine , from Greek hūs, swine.

||[Pokorny sū̆-s 1038.]

r510_ ‌ ‌ swād-
Sweet, pleasant. Oldest form *sweh₂d‑, colored to *swah₂d‑, becoming *swād‑.

sweet , from Old English swēte, sweet, from Germanic *swōtja‑.
Suffixed form *swād-ē‑. suasion ; assuasive , dissuade , persuade , from Latin suādēre, to advise, urge (< "recommend as good").
Suffixed form *swād-wi‑. soave , suave ; assuage , from Latin suāvis, delightful.
Suffixed form *swād-es‑. aedes , from Greek ēdos, pleasure.
Suffixed form *swād-onā. hedonic , hedonism , from Greek hēdonē, pleasure.

||[Pokorny su̯ād‑ 1039.]

r511_ ‌ ‌ s(w)e-
Pronoun of the third person and reflexive (referring back to the subject of the sentence); further appearing in various forms referring to the social group as an entity, "(we our‑)selves."
Derivatives include self , gossip , suicide , secret , sober , sullen , ethic , and idiot.

Suffixed extended form *sel-bho‑. self , from Old English self, sylf, self, same, from Germanic *selbaz, self.
Suffixed form *s(w)e-bh(o)‑. sib ; gossip , from Old English sibb, relative, from Germanic *sibja‑, "one's own," blood relation, relative.
Suffixed form *se-ge. bustle ¹, from Old Norse -sk, reflexive suffix (as in būask, to make oneself ready), from sik, oneself (reflexive pronoun), from Germanic *sik, self.
Suffixed form *swoi-no‑. swain ; boatswain , from Old Norse sveinn, herdsman, boy, from Germanic *swainaz, "one's own (man)," attendant, servant.
Suffixed form *s(u)w-o‑, one's own.
1. suicide , from Latin suī (genitive), of oneself;
2. swami , from Sanskrit svāmī, "one's own master," owner, prince, from sva‑ (< *swo‑), one's own.
Extended form *sed. secede , secern , seclude , secret , secure , sedition , seduction , sedulous , segregate , select , separate , sever , sure , from Latin sēd, sē, sē‑, without, apart (< "on one's own");
1. sober , from Latin compound sōbrius, not drunk (ēbrius, drunk; see eg^wh- ).
Possibly suffixed lengthened o-grade form *sō-lo. sole ², solitary , solitude , solo , sullen ; desolate , soliloquy , solipsism , from Latin sōlus, by oneself alone.
Extended root *swē̆dh‑, "that which is one's own," peculiarity, custom.
1. sodality , from Latin sodālis, companion (< "one's own," "relative");
2. suffixed form *swēdh-sko‑. consuetude , custom , desuetude , mansuetude , mastiff , from Latin suēscere, to accustom, get accustomed;
3. ethic , ethos ; cacoëthes , from Greek ēthos, custom, disposition, trait;
4. suffixed form *swedh-no‑. ethnic , ethno- , from Greek ethnos, band of people living together, nation, people (< "people of one's own kind").
Suffixed extended form *swet-aro‑. hetaera , from Greek hetairos, comrade, companion, earlier hetaros.
Suffixed extended form *swed-yo‑. idio- , idiom , idiot ; idiopathy , idiosyncrasy , from Greek idios, personal, private ("particular to oneself").
Suffixed form *swei-no‑. Sinn Fein , from Old Irish féin, self.
Suffixed (ablatival) form *swe-tos, from oneself. khedive , from Old Iranian khvadāta‑, lord, by haplology from compound form *khvatō-dāta‑, created from oneself (dāta‑, created; see dhē- ).
Perhaps suffixed form *swe-tono‑. Khotanese , from Khotanese Hvatana‑, perhaps "those holding their own (power), masters.".

||[Pokorny se‑ 882.]

r512_ ‌ ‌ sweid-
Sweat; to sweat.

O-grade form *swoid‑.
1. sweat , from Old English swǣtan, to sweat, from Germanic *swaitaz, sweat, with its denominative *swaitjan, to sweat.
2. Suffixed form *swoid-os‑. sudorific ; sudoriferous , from Latin sūdor, sweat.
3. O-grade form *swoid-ā‑. sudatorium , suint ; exude , transude , from Latin sūdāre, to sweat.
Suffixed zero-grade form *swid-r-os‑. hidrosis , from Greek hidrōs, sweat.

||[Pokorny 2. su̯eid‑ 1043.]

r513_ ‌ ‌ s(w)eks
Six. Oldest form *s(w)ek̑s, becoming *s(w)eks in centum languages.

Form *seks.
1. six ; sixteen , sixty , from Old English s(i)ex, six, with derivatives sixtig, sixty, and sixtȳne, sixteen (-tȳne, ten; see dekm̥ ), from Germanic *seks.
2. senary , sex- ; seicento , semester , from Latin sex, six.
3. Suffixed form *seks-to‑. sestet , sestina , sext , sextant , sextile ; sextodecimo , siesta , Sistine , from Latin sextus, sixth.
Form *sweks. hexa- , hexad , from Greek hex, six.

||[Pokorny su̯ek̑s 1044.]

r514_ ‌ ‌ swel-
To eat, drink.

Perhaps Germanic *swil‑. swill , from Old English swilian, to wash out, gargle.
Extended form *swelk‑. swallow ¹; groundsel ¹, from Old English swelgan, to swallow, from Germanic *swelgan, *swelhan.
manticore , markhor , from Iranian *khvāra‑, eating.

||[Pokorny 1. su̯el(k‑) 1045.]

r515_ ‌ ‌ swen-
Also swenə-.
To sound. (oldest form *swenh₂‑).

Suffixed o-grade form *swon-o‑.
1. swan ¹, from Old English swan, swan, from Germanic *swanaz, *swanōn‑, "singer.";
2. sone , sonic , sonnet , sound ¹; unison , from Latin sonus, a sound.
Basic variant form *swenə‑. sonant , sonata , sonorous ; assonance , consonant , dissonant , resound , from Latin sonāre, to sound.

||[Pokorny su̯en‑ 1046.]

r516_ ‌ ‌ swep-
To sleep.

Suffixed form *swep-os‑. sopor ; soporific , from Latin sopor, a deep sleep.
Suffixed form *swep-no‑. somni- , somnolent ; insomnia , from Latin somnus, sleep.
Suffixed zero-grade form *sup-no‑. hypno- , hypnosis , hypnotic , from Greek hupnos, sleep.

||[Pokorny 1. su̯ep‑ 1048.]

r517_ ‌ ‌ swer-
To speak, talk. O-grade form *swor‑.

swear , from Old English swerian, to swear, proclaim, from Germanic *swarjan;
answer , from Old English andswaru, answer, from Germanic *and-swarō, "a swearing against," "rebuttal" (*andi‑, against; see ant- ).

||[Pokorny 1. su̯er‑ 1049.]

r518_ ‌ ‌ swesor-
Sister. Perhaps originally a compound of s(w)e- and *esōr, woman, so literally "woman of one's own kin group" in an exogamous society.

Zero-grade form *swesr‑.
1. sister , from Old English sweostor, sister, and Old Norse systir, sister, both from Germanic *swestr‑;
2. suffixed form *swesr-īno‑. cousin , from Latin sobrīnus, maternal cousin.
sororal , sorority ; sororicide , from Latin soror, sister.

||[Pokorny su̯esor‑ 1051.]

r519_ ‌ ‌ swo-
Pronominal stem; so. Derivative of s(w)e- .

1. so ¹, from Old English swā, so;
2. such , from Old English swylc, such, from Germanic compound *swa-līk‑, "so like," of the same kind (*līk‑, same; see līk- ).
Adverbial form *swai. nisi , quasi , from Latin sī, if, in nisi, unless (nī, not; see ne- ), and quasi, as if (quam, as; see k^wo- ).

|| ||[Pokorny se‑ 882.]

r520_ ‌ ‌ syū-
Also sū-.
To bind, sew. Oldest form *s(y)uh_x‑, becoming *s(y)ū‑.

Basic form *syū‑. sew , from Old English seowian, siowan, to sew, from Germanic *siwjan.
Variant form *sū‑.
1. seam , from Old English sēam, seam, from Germanic *saumaz.
2. suture ; accouter , couture , from Latin suere (past participle sūtus), to sew.
3. Suffixed form *sū-dhlā‑. souvlaki , subulate , from Latin sūbula, awl (< "sewing instrument").
4. Suffixed form *sū-tro‑. sutra ; Kamasutra , from Sanskrit sūtram, thread, string.
Suffixed shortened form *syu-men‑. hymen , from Greek humēn, thin skin, membrane.

||[Pokorny si̯ū‑ 915.]

r521_ ‌ ‌ tag-
To touch, handle.

Nasalized form *ta-n-g‑. tact , tangent , tangible , task , taste , tax ; attain , contact , intact , from Latin tangere, to touch, with derivatives taxāre, to touch, assess (possibly a frequentative of tangere, but probably influenced by Greek tassein, taxai, to arrange, assess), and tāctus, touch.
Compound form *n̥-tag-ro‑, "untouched, intact" (*n̥‑, negative prefix; see ne ). entire , integer , integrate , integrity , from Latin integer, intact, whole, complete, perfect, honest.
Suffixed form *tag-smen‑. contaminate , from Latin contāmināre, to corrupt by mixing or contact (< *con-tāmen‑, "bringing into contact with"; con‑, com‑, with; see kom ).

||[Pokorny tag‑ 1054.]

r522_ ‌ ‌ tauro-
Bull. Derivative of stā- , but an independent word in Indo-European.

taurine ¹, Taurus , toreador , torero ; bittern ¹, from Latin taurus, bull.
taurine ²; taurocholic acid , from Greek tauros, bull.

|| ||[Pokorny tēu‑ 1080.]

r523_ ‌ ‌ tegu-
Thick.

: thick , from Old English thicce, thick, from Germanic *thiku‑.

||[Pokorny tegu‑ 1057.]

r524_ ‌ ‌ tek-
To beget, give birth to.

Suffixed form *tek-no‑, child. thane , from Old English thegn, freeman, nobleman, military vassal, warrior, from Germanic *thegnaz, boy, man, servant, warrior.
Suffixed o-grade form *tok-o‑. oxytocic , polytocous , tocology , from Greek tokos, birth.

||[Pokorny 1. tek‑ 1057.]

r525_ ‌ ‌ teks-
To weave; also to fabricate, especially with an ax; also to make wicker or wattle fabric for (mud-covered) house walls. Oldest form *tek̑s‑, becoming *teks‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include text , tissue , subtle , architect , and technology.

text , tissue ; context , pretext , from Latin texere, to weave, fabricate.
Suffixed form *teks-lā‑.
1. tiller ², toil ², from Latin tēla, web, net, warp of a fabric, also weaver's beam (to which the warp threads are tied);
2. subtle , from Latin subtīlis, thin, fine, precise, subtle (< *sub-tēla, "thread passing under the warp," the finest thread; sub, under; see upo ).
Suffixed form *teks-ōn‑, weaver, maker of wattle for house walls, builder (possibly contaminated with *teks-tōr, builder) tectonic ; architect , from Greek tektōn, carpenter, builder.
Suffixed form *teks-nā‑, craft (of weaving or fabricating) technical , polytechnic , technology , from Greek tekhnē, art, craft, skill.
1. dachshund , from Old High German dahs, badger;
2. dassie , from Middle Dutch das, badger. Both a and b from Germanic *thahsuz, badger, possibly from this root ("the animal that builds," referring to its burrowing skill) but more likely borrowed from the same pre-Indo-European source as the Celtic totemic name *Tazgo‑ (as in Gaulish Tazgo‑, Gaelic Tadhg), originally "badger.".

||[Pokorny tek̑Þ‑ 1058.]

r526_ ‌ ‌ telə-
To lift, support, weigh; with derivatives referring to measured weights and thence to money and payment. Oldest form *telh₂‑.
Derivatives include tolerate , retaliate , tantalize , Atlas , translate , and extol.

Suffixed form *telə-mon‑. telamon , from Greek telamōn, supporter, bearer.
Suffixed form *tel(ə)-es‑.
1. toll ¹; philately , from Greek telos, tax, charge;
2. tolerate , from Latin tolerāre, to bear, endure.
Suffixed zero-grade form *tl̥ə-i‑. talion ; retaliate , from Latin tāliō, reciprocal punishment in kind, possibly "something paid out," from *tali‑ (influenced by tālis, such).
Suffixed variant zero-grade form *tala-nt‑. talent , from Greek talanton, balance, weight, any of several specific weights of gold or silver, hence the sum of money represented by such a weight.
Perhaps (but unlikely) intensive reduplicated form *tantal‑. tantalize , Tantalus , from Greek Tantalos, name of a legendary king, "the sufferer.".
Perhaps (but unlikely) zero-grade form *tl̥ə‑. Atlantic , Atlas , from Greek Atlās (stem Atlant‑), name of the Titan supporting the world.
Suffixed zero-grade form *tl̥ə-to‑. ablation , ablative ¹, allative , collate , dilatory , elate , elative , illation , illative , legislator , oblate ¹, prelate , prolate , relate , sublate , superlative , translate , from Latin lātus, "carried, borne," used as the suppletive past participle of ferre, to bear (see bher- ¹), with its compounds.
Suffixed zero-grade form *tl̥ə-ā‑. tola , from Sanskrit tulā, scales, balance, weight.
Nasalized zero-grade form *tl̥-n-ə‑. extol , from Latin tollere, to lift.

||[Pokorny 1. tel‑ 1060.]

r527_ ‌ ‌ tem-
Also temə-.
To cut. (oldest form *temh₂‑).

Form *temə‑. Nasalized form *t(e)m-n-ə‑. tmesis , tome , -tome , -tomy ; acrotomophilia , anatomy , apotemnophilia , atom , diatom , dichotomy , entomo- , epitome , from Greek temnein, to cut, with o-grade forms tomos, cutting, a cut, section, volume, and tomē, a cutting.
Form *tem‑.
1. Suffixed form *tem-lo‑. temple ¹, temple ³; contemplate , from Latin templum, temple, shrine, open place for observation (augury term < "place reserved or cut out"), small piece of timber.
2. Extended root *tem-d‑ becoming *tend‑ in o-grade suffixed (iterative) form *tond-eyo‑. tonsorial , tonsure , from Latin tondēre, to shear, shave.

||[Pokorny 1. tem‑ 1062.]

r528_ ‌ ‌ ten-
To stretch.
Derivatives include tendon , pretend , hypotenuse , tenement , tenor , entertain , lieutenant , and tone.

Derivatives with the basic meaning.
1. Suffixed form *ten-do‑.
  1. tend ¹, tender ², tendu ², tense ¹, tent ¹; attend , contend , detent , distend , extend , intend , ostensible , pretend , subtend , from Latin tendere, to stretch, extend;
  2. portend , from Latin portendere, "to stretch out before" (por‑, variant of pro‑, before; see per ¹), a technical term in augury, "to indicate, presage, foretell.".
2. Suffixed form *ten-yo‑. tenesmus ; anatase , bronchiectasis , catatonia , entasis , epitasis , hypotenuse , neoteny , paratenic host , peritoneum , protasis , syntonic , telangiectasia , from Greek teinein, to stretch, with o-grade form ton‑ and zero-grade noun tasis (< *tn̥-ti‑), a stretching, tension, intensity.
3. Reduplicated zero-grade form *te-tn̥-o‑. tetanus , from Greek tetanos, stiff, rigid.
4. Suffixed full-grade form *ten-tro‑.
  1. tantra , from Sanskrit tantram, loom;
  2. sitar , from Persian tār, string.
5. Basic form (with stative suffix) *ten-ē‑. tenable , tenacious , tenaculum , tenant , tenement , tenet , tenon , tenor , tenure , tenuto ; abstain , contain , continue , detain , entertain , lieutenant , maintain , obtain , pertain , pertinacious , rein , retain , retinaculum , retinue , sustain , from Latin tenēre, to hold, keep, maintain (< "to cause to endure or continue, hold on to").
6. Extended form *ten-s‑. Suffixed zero-grade form *tn̥s-elo‑. tussah , from Sanskrit tasaram, shuttle.
Derivatives meaning "stretched," hence "thin."
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *tn̥-u‑. thin , from Old English thynne, thin, from Germanic *thunniz, from *thunw‑.
2. Suffixed full-grade form *ten-u‑. tenuous ; attenuate , extenuate , from Latin tenuis, thin, rare, fine.
3. Suffixed full-grade form *ten-ero‑. tender ¹, tendril ; intenerate , from Latin tener, tender, delicate.
Derivatives meaning "something stretched or capable of being stretched, a string."
1. Suffixed form *ten-ōn‑. tendon , teno- , from Greek tenōn, tendon.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *ton-o‑. tone ; baritone , tonoplast , from Greek tonos, string, hence sound, pitch.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *tn̥-yā‑. taenia ; polytene , from Greek tainiā, band, ribbon.

||[Pokorny 1. ten‑ 1065.]

r529_ ‌ ‌ terə-¹
To rub, turn; with some derivatives referring to twisting, boring, drilling, and piercing; and others referring to the rubbing of cereal grain to remove the husks, and thence to the process of threshing either by the trampling of oxen or by flailing with flails. Oldest form *terh₁‑, with variant *treh₁‑, becoming *trē‑.
Derivatives include trite , detriment , thrash , trauma , and truant.

Full-grade form *ter(ə)‑.
1. 1. trite , triturate ; attrition , contrite , detriment , from Latin terere (past participle trītus), to rub away, thresh, tread, wear out;
  2. teredo , from Greek terēdōn, a kind of biting worm.
2. Suffixed form *ter-et‑. terete , from Latin teres (stem teret‑), rounded, smooth.
3. Suffixed form *ter-sko‑.
  1. thrash , thresh , from Old English therscan, to thresh;
  2. threshold , from Old English therscold, threscold, sill of a door (over which one treads; second element obscure). Both a and b from Germanic *therskan, *threskan, to thresh, tread.
O-grade form *tor(ə)‑.
1. toreutics , from Greek toreus, a boring tool.
2. Suffixed form *tor(ə)-mo‑, hole. derma ², from Old High German darm, gut, from Germanic *tharma‑.
3. Suffixed form *tor(ə)-no‑. turn ; attorn , attorney , contour , detour , return , from Greek tornos, tool for drawing a circle, circle, lathe.
Zero-grade form *tr‑. drill ¹, from Middle Dutch drillen, to drill, from Germanic *thr‑.
Variant form *trē‑ (< *treə‑).
1. throw , from Old English thrāwan, to turn, twist, from Germanic *thrēw‑.
2. Suffixed form *trē-tu‑. thread , from Old English thrǣd, thread, from Germanic *thrēdu‑, twisted yarn.
3. Suffixed form *trē-mn̥ (< *treə‑ or *tr̥ə‑) diatreme , monotreme , trematode , from Greek trēma, perforation.
4. Suffixed form *trē-ti‑ (< *treə‑ or *tr̥ə‑) atresia , from Greek trēsis, perforation.
Extended form *trī‑ (< *triə‑).
1. Probably suffixed form *trī-ōn‑. septentrion , from Latin triō, plow ox.
2. Suffixed form *trī-dhlo‑. tribulation , from Latin trībulum, a threshing sledge.
Various extended forms
1. Forms *trō‑, *trau‑. trauma , from Greek trauma, hurt, wound.
2. Form *trīb‑. diatribe , triboelectricity , tribology , triboluminescence , trypsin , from Greek trībein, to rub, thresh, pound, wear out.
3. Form *trōg‑, *trag‑.
  1. trogon , trout , from Greek trōgein, to gnaw;
  2. dredge ², from Greek tragēma, sweetmeat.
4. Form *trup‑. trepan ¹; trypanosome , from Greek trupē, hole.
5. Possible form *trūg‑. truant , from Old French truant, beggar.

||[Pokorny 3. ter‑ 1071.]

r530_ ‌ ‌ terə-²
To cross over, pass through, overcome. Oldest form *terh₂‑, with variant *treh₂‑, colored to *trah₂‑, becoming *trā‑.
Derivatives include thrill , nostril , and trench.

Zero-grade form *tr̥(ə)‑.
1. thrill ; nostril , from Old English thyr(e)l, thȳrel, a hole (< "a boring through"), from Germanic suffixed form *thur-ila‑.
2. Suffixed form *tr̥ə-k^we. thorough , through , from Old English thurh, thuruh, through, from Germanic *thurh.
3. Greek nektar (see nek- ¹).
4. Zero-grade form *tr̥ə‑ and full-grade form *ter(ə)‑. avatar , from Sanskrit tirati, tarati, he crosses over.
Variant form *trā‑ (< *traə‑).
1. trans- , transient , transom , from Latin trāns, across, over, beyond, through (perhaps originally the present participle of a verb *trāre, to cross over).
2. Suffixed form *trā-yo‑. seraglio , serai ; caravansary , lamasery , from Iranian *thrāya‑, to protect.
Possible extended form *tru‑.
1. Suffixed form *tru-k‑. truculent , from Latin trux (stem truc‑), savage, fierce, grim (< "overcoming," "powerful," "penetrating").
2. Suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *tru-n-k-o‑. tranche , trench , truncate , trunk , from Latin truncus, deprived of branches or limbs, mutilated, hence trunk (? < "overcome, maimed").

||[Pokorny 5. ter‑ 1075.]

r531_ ‌ ‌ terk^w-
To twist.

Possible variant (metathesized) form *twerk‑.
1. queer , from Middle Low German dwer, oblique;
2. thwart , from Old Norse thverr, transverse. Both a and b from Germanic *thwerh‑, twisted, oblique.
Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *tork^w-eyo‑. torch , torment , torque ¹, torque ², torsade , torsion , tort , tortuous , torture , truss ; contort , distort , extort , nasturtium , retort ¹, torticollis , from Latin torquēre, to twist.

||[Pokorny terk‑ 1077.]

r532_ ‌ ‌ ters-
To dry.
Derivatives include thirst , terrain , toast ¹, and torrent.

Suffixed zero-grade form *tr̥s‑.
1. thirst , from Old English thurst, dryness, thirst, from Germanic suffixed form *thurs-tu‑;
2. cusk , torsk , tusk ², from Old Norse thorskr, cod (< "dried fish"). Both a and b from Germanic *thurs‑.
Suffixed basic form *ters-ā‑. terrace , terrain , Terran , terrene , terrestrial , terrier , territory , terroir , tureen ; fumitory , inter , mediterranean , parterre , souterrain , subterranean , tartufo , terraqueous , terreplein , terre-verte , terricolous , terrigenous , turmeric , verditer , from Latin terra, "dry land," earth.
Suffixed o-grade form *tors-eyo‑. toast ¹, torrent , torrid , tostones , from Latin torrēre, to dry, parch, burn.
Suffixed zero-grade form *tr̥s-o‑. tarsus , from Greek tarsos, frame of wickerwork (originally for drying cheese), hence a flat surface, sole of the foot, ankle.

||[Pokorny ters‑ 1078.]

r533_ ‌ ‌ teuə-
Also teu-.
To swell. Oldest form *teuh₂‑.
Derivatives include thigh , thousand , thimble , tumor , butter , and tomb.

Extended form *teuk‑. thigh , from Old English thēoh, thigh, from Germanic *theuham, "the swollen or fat part of the leg," thigh.
Extended form *tūs‑. thousand , from Old English thūsend, thousand, from Germanic compound *thūs-hundi‑, "swollen hundred," thousand (*hundi‑, hundred; see dekm̥ ).
Probably suffixed zero-grade form *tu-l‑.
1. thole , from Old English thol(l), oar pin, oarlock (< "a swelling"), from Germanic *thul‑;
2. tylectomy , tylosis ¹, from Greek tulos, callus, lump.
Extended zero-grade form *tūm‑.
1. thimble , thumb , from Old English thūma, thumb (< "the thick finger"), from Germanic *thūmōn‑;
2. suffixed (stative) form *tum-ē‑. tumescent , tumid , tumor ; detumescence , intumesce , tumefacient , tumefy , from Latin tumēre, to swell, be swollen, be proud;
3. suffixed form *tum-olo‑. tumulus , from Latin tumulus, raised heap of earth, mound.
Extended zero-grade form *tūbh‑. truffle , tuber ; protuberate , tartufo , from Latin tūber, lump, swelling.
Suffixed zero-grade form *tū-ro‑ (< *tuə-ro‑).
1. butter , tyrosine , from Greek tūros, cheese (< "a swelling," "coagulating");
2. obturate , from Latin -tūrāre, to stop up, possibly from *tūros, swollen, coagulated, stopped up.
Suffixed variant form *twō-ro‑.
1. sorites , sorus , from Greek sōros, heap, pile;
2. quark ², from Old Church Slavonic tvarogŭ, curds, cottage cheese.
Suffixed variant form *twō-mn̥. soma ¹, somato- , -some ³; prosoma , from Greek sōma, body (< "a swelling," "stocky form").
Suffixed zero-grade form *twə-wo‑. creosote , soteriology , from Greek saos, sōs, safe, healthy (< "swollen," "strong"), with derivative verb sōzein, to save.
Perhaps nasalized extended form *tu-m-b(h)‑ (or extended zero-grade form *tum‑) tomb , from Greek tumbos, barrow, tomb.

||[Pokorny tēu‑ 1080.]

r534_ ‌ ‌ teutā-
Tribe.

1. Dutch , from Middle Dutch duutsch, German, of the Germans or Teutons;
2. Plattdeutsch , from Old High German diutisc, of the people. Both a and b from Germanic *theudiskaz, of the people, derivative of *theudō, people.
Suffixed form *teut-onōs, "they of the tribe." Teuton , from Latin Teutōnī, the Teutons, borrowed via Celtic from Germanic tribal name *theudanōz.
Possibly Latin tōtus, all, whole (? < "of the whole tribe") total , tutti ; factotum , teetotum .

|| ||[Pokorny tēu‑ 1080.]

r535_ ‌ ‌ tkei-
To settle, dwell, be home. Oldest form *tk̑ei‑, becoming *tkei‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include home , hangar , and situate.

Suffixed o-grade form *(t)koi-mo‑.
1. home , from Old English hām, home;
2. Niflheim , from Old Norse heimr, home;
3. haimish , from Old High German heim, home;
4. hame , from Middle Dutch hame, hame (< "covering");
5. hamlet , from Old French ham, village, home;
6. haunt , from Old French hanter, to frequent, haunt, from Germanic *haimatjan, to go or bring home;
7. hangar , from Old French hangard, shelter, possibly from Germanic *haimgardaz (*gardaz, enclosure; see gher- ¹). a-g all from Germanic *haimaz, home.
Zero-grade form *tki‑.
1. amphictyony , protoctist , from Greek ktizein, to found, settle, from metathesized *kti‑;
2. probably Italic *si‑. situate , situs , from Latin situs, location, from suffixed form *si-tu‑.

||[Pokorny 1. k̑ei‑ 539, k̑Þei‑ 626.]

r536_ ‌ ‌ to-
Demonstrative pronoun. For the nominative singular see so- .
Derivatives include decoy , thus , and tandem.

1. the ²; natheless , from Old English thē, thȳ (instrumental case), by the;
2. decoy , from Middle Dutch de, the;
3. lest , from Old English the, a conjunction. a-c from Germanic *thē, from Indo-European instrumental form *tē.
though , from Middle English though, though, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse thō, though, from Germanic *thauh, "for all that.".
these , this , those , from Old English thes, this, this, from Germanic *thasi‑.
than , then , from Old English thanne, thænne, thenne, than, then, from Germanic *thana‑.
thence , from Old English thanon, thence, from Germanic *thanana‑.
there , from Old English thǣr, thēr, there, from Germanic *thēr.
thither , from Old English thæder, thider, thither, from Germanic *thathro.
they , from Old Norse their, they, from Germanic nominative plural *thai.
their , from Old Norse their(r)a, theirs, from Germanic genitive plural *thaira.
them , from Old Norse theim and Old English thǣm, them, from Germanic dative plural *thaimiz.
Extended neuter form *tod‑. that , from Old English thæt, that, from Germanic *that.
thus , from Old English thus, thus, from Germanic *thus‑.
Adverbial (originally accusative) form *tam. tandem , tantamount , from Latin tandem, at last, so much, and tantus, so much.
Suffixed reduced form *t-āli‑. tales , from Latin tālis, such.
tauto- , from Greek to, the.

||[Pokorny 1. to‑ 1086.]

r537_ ‌ ‌ tolk^w-
To speak. Metathesized form *tlok^w‑.

: locution , loquacious ; allocution , circumlocution , colloquium , colloquy , elocution , grandiloquence , interlocution , magniloquent , obloquy , prolocutor , soliloquy , ventriloquism , from Latin loquī, to speak.

||[Pokorny tolk^u̯‑ 1088.]

r538_ ‌ ‌ tong-
To think, feel.

thank , from Old English thanc, thought, good will, and thancian, to thank, from Germanic *thankaz, thought, gratitude, and *thankōn, to think of, thank.
bethink , think , from Old English (bi)thencan, to think, from Germanic *(bi‑)thankjan.
thought , from Old English (ge)thōht, thought, from Germanic *(ga)thanht‑ (*ga‑, collective prefix; see kom ).
methinks , from Old English thyncan, to seem, from Germanic *thunkjan.

||[Pokorny 1. tong‑ 1088.]

r539_ ‌ ‌ treb-
Dwelling.

Zero-grade form *tr̥b‑.
1. thorp , from Old English thorp, village, hamlet;
2. dorp , from Middle Dutch dorp, village. Both a and b from Germanic *thurp‑.
trabeated , trabecula , trave ; architrave , from Latin trabs, beam, timber.

||[Pokorny trē̆b‑ 1090.]

r540_ ‌ ‌ trei-
Three.
Derivatives include three , trio , testicle , detest , and trinity.

Nominative plural form *treyes.
1. 1. three , thrice ; thirteen , thirty , from Old English thrīe, thrēo, thrī, three, with its derivatives thrīga, thrīwa, thrice, thrītig, thirty, and thrēotīne, thirteen (-tīne, ten; see dekm̥ );
  2. trillium , from Old Swedish thrīr, three. Both a and b from Germanic *thrijiz.
2. trey ; trammel , trecento , trephine , triumvir , trocar , from Latin trēs, three.
3. triskaidekaphobia , from Greek treis,tris, three.
Zero-grade form *tri‑.
1. Suffixed form *tri-tyo‑.
  1. 1. third , from Old English thrid(d)a,thirdda, third;
    2. riding ², from Old Norse thridhi, third. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *thridjaz, third.
  2. tercel , tercet , tertian , tertiary , tierce ; sesterce , from Latin tertius, third.
2. Combining form *tri‑.
  1. tri- , tribe , trio , triple , from Latin tri‑, three;
  2. tri- ; triclinium , tricrotic , tridactyl , triglyph , tritone , from Greek tri‑, three;
  3. Trimurti , from Sanskrit tri‑, three.
3. triad , from Greek trias, the number three.
4. trichotomy , from Greek trikha, in three parts.
5. trierarch , from Greek compound triērēs, galley with three banks of oars, trireme (-ērēs, oar; see erə- ).
6. Suffixed form *tri-to‑. tritium , from Greek tritos, third.
7. Compound form *tri-pl‑, "threefold" (*-pl‑, < combining form *-plo‑, -fold; see pel- ²). triploblastic , from Greek triploos, triple.
8. Compound form *tri-plek‑, "threefold" (*-plek‑,-fold; see plek- ). triplex , from Latin triplex, triple.
9. Compound form *tri-st-i‑, "third person standing by" (-st‑, standing; see stā- ). testament , testimony , testicle , testis ; attest , contest , detest , obtest , protest , testify , from Latin testis, a witness.
10. sitar , teapoy , from Persian si, three.
Extended zero-grade form *tris, "thrice."
1. tern ²; termolecular , terpolymer , from Latin ter, thrice.
2. trisoctahedron , Hermes Trismegistus , from Greek tris, thrice.
3. Suffixed form *tris-no‑. trine , trinity , from Latin trīnī, three each.
Suffixed o-grade form *troy-o‑. troika , from Russian troje, group of three.

||[Pokorny trei‑ 1090.]

r541_ ‌ ‌ trep-
To turn.

-tropous ; apotropaic , Atropos , treponema , from Greek trepein, to turn, with o-grade derivative tropos, turning.
O-grade form *trop‑.
1. Suffixed form *trop-o‑. trope , troubadour , trover ; contrive , retrieve , from Greek tropos, a turn, way, manner;
2. suffixed form *trop-ā‑. trophy , tropic , tropo- ; entropy , from Greek tropē, a turning, change.

||[Pokorny 2. trep‑ 1094.]

r542_ ‌ ‌ treud-
To squeeze.

Suffixed o-grade form *troud-o‑. threat , from Old English thrēat, oppression, use of force, from Germanic *thrautam.
Variant form *trūd‑. thrust , from Old Norse thrȳsta, to squeeze, compress, from Germanic *thrūstjan.
abstruse , extrude , intrude , obtrude , protrude , from Latin trūdere, to thrust, push.

||[Pokorny tr-eu-d‑ 1095.]

r543_ ‌ ‌ tu-
Second person singular pronoun; you, thou.

Lengthened form *tū (accusative *te, *tege) thee , thou ¹, from Old English thū (accusative thec, thē), thou, from Germanic *thū (accusative *theke).
Suffixed extended form *t(w)ei-no‑. thine , thy , from Old English thīn, thine, from Germanic *thīnaz.
Enclitic form *toi. namaste , from Sanskrit te, enclitic second singular genitive and dative pronoun.

||[Pokorny tū̆ 1097.]

r544_ ‌ ‌ ud-
Also ūd-.
Up, out.
Derivatives include utmost , carouse , outlaw , and hubris.

1. out ; utmost , from Old English ūt, out;
2. carouse ; auslander , from Old High German ūz, out;
3. outlaw , from Old Norse ūt, out;
4. uitlander , from Middle Dutch ute, uut, out;
5. utter ¹, from Middle Low German ūt, out;
6. utter ², from Old English ūtera, outer, from Germanic suffixed (comparative) form *ūt-era‑;
7. but ; about , from Old English būtan, būte, outside (adverb), from Germanic compound *bi-ūtana, "at the outside" (*bi‑, by, at; see ambhi ). a-g all from Germanic *ūt‑, out.
Extended form *uds.
1. ersatz , from Old High German irsezzan, to replace, from ir‑, out;
2. ort , from Middle Dutch oor, out;
3. Germanic compound *uz-dailjam (see dail- );
4. Ursprache , from Old High German ur‑, out of, original. a-d all from Germanic *uz, *uz‑, out.
Suffixed (comparative) form *ud-tero‑. hysteresis , hysteron proteron , from Greek husteros, later, second, after.
hubris , from Greek compound hubris, violence, outrage, insolence (bri‑, perhaps "heavy," "violent"; see g^werə- ¹), from hu‑.
vigorish , from Russian vy‑, out.

||[Pokorny ū̆d‑ 1103.]

r545_ ‌ ‌ uks-en-
Bull, ox.

ox , from Old English oxa, ox;
aurochs , from Old High German ohso, ox. Both a and b from Germanic *uhsōn‑.

|| ||[Pokorny u̯eg^u̯‑ 1118.]

r546_ ‌ ‌ uper
Over.
Derivatives include over , sovereign , sirloin , soprano , and somersault.

Extended form *uperi.
1. over , over- , from Old English ofer, over;
2. uber- , from Old High German ubar, uber (preposition) and ubari, uberi (adverb), over;
3. orlop , from Middle Low German over, over. a-c all from Germanic *uberi.
Variant form *(s)uper.
1. soubrette , sovereign , super- , superable , superior , supreme , supremo , sur- ; sirloin , from Latin super, super‑, above, over;
2. suffixed form *(s)uper-no‑. supernal , from Latin supernus, above, upper, top;
3. suffixed form *super-bhw-o‑, "being above" (*bhw-o‑, being; see bheuə- ). superb , from Latin superbus, superior, excellent, arrogant;
4. suffixed (superlative) reduced form *sup-mo‑. sum ¹, summit , from Latin summus, highest, topmost;
5. suffixed form *super-o‑. sopranino , soprano , supra- ; somersault , from Latin suprā (feminine ablative singular), above, beyond.
Basic form *uper. hyper- , from Greek huper, over.

||[Pokorny upér 1105.]

r547_ ‌ ‌ upo
Under, up from under, over.
Derivatives include uproar , open , eavesdrop , supple , valet , vassal , and opal.

1. up , from Old English up, uppe, up;
2. up- , from Old English ūp‑, upp‑, up;
3. uproar , from Middle Low German up, up;
4. Aufklärung , from Old High German ūf, up. a-d all from Germanic *upp‑, up.
open , from Old English open, open, from Germanic *upanaz, "put or set up," open.
above , from Old English būfan, above, over, from Germanic compound *bi-ufana, "on, above" (*bi‑, by, at; see ambhi ).
Possibly suffixed form *up-t‑. oft , often , from Old English oft, often, from Germanic *ufta, frequently.
Extended form *upes‑.
1. eaves , from Old English efes, eaves;
2. eavesdrop , from Old English yfesdrype, water from the eaves, from Germanic *obisdrup‑, dripping water from the eaves (*drup‑, to drip, from *dhrub‑; see dhreu- ). Both a and b from Germanic *ubaswō, *ubizwō, vestibule, porch, eaves (< "that which is above or in front").
Variant form *(s)up‑.
1. soutane , sub- ; souterrain , from Latin sub, under;
2. supine ; resupinate , from Latin supīnus, lying on the back (< "thrown backward or under");
3. suffixed form *sup-ter. subterfuge , from Latin subter, secretly;
4. Latin compound supplex (< *sub-plak‑; see plāk- ¹).
Basic form *upo. hypo- , from Greek hupo, under.
Suffixed variant form *ups-o‑. hypso- , from Greek hupsos, height, top.
Basic form *upo‑. Celtic *wo‑, under, in compound *wo-rēd‑ (see reidh- ).
Probably compound *upo-st-o‑. valet , varlet , vassal , from Vulgar Latin *vassus, vassal, from Celtic *wasso‑, "one who stands under," servant, young man (*sto‑, standing; see stā- ).
1. opal , Upanishad , from Sanskrit upa, near to, under;
2. Zend-Avesta , from Avestan upa, up to, at (in *upastāvaka‑, praise). Both a and b from Indo-Iranian *upa.

||[Pokorny upo 1106.]

r548_ ‌ ‌ wal-
To be strong.

Suffixed (stative) form *wal-ē‑. vale ², valence , valetudinarian , valiant , valid , valor , value ; ambivalence , avail , convalesce , countervail , equivalent , evaluate , invalid ¹, invalid ², prevail , valediction , from Latin valēre, to be strong.
Extended o-grade form *wold(h)‑.
1. wield , from Old English wealdan, to rule, and wieldan, to govern, from Germanic *waldan, to rule;
2. Germanic *wald‑, power, rule, in compound *harja-waldaz (see koro- ).
Suffixed extended o-grade form *wold-ti‑. oblast , from Old Church Slavonic vlastĭ, rule.

||[Pokorny u̯al‑ 1111.]

r549_ ‌ ‌ wap-
Bad, evil. Oldest form *h₂wap‑. Suffixed zero-grade form *up-elo‑.

: evil , from Old English yfel, evil, from Germanic *ubilaz, evil.

||[Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite ḫuwapp‑, evil.]

r550_ ‌ ‌ we-
We. For oblique cases of the pronoun see nes- ² . Suffixed variant form *wey-es

: we , from Old English wē, we, we, from Germanic *wīz.

||[Pokorny u̯ē̆‑ 1114.]

r551_ ‌ ‌ wē-
To blow. Oldest form *h₂weh₁‑, becoming *wē after loss of initial laryngeal and compensatory lengthening of vowel from loss of final laryngeal.

Suffixed shortened form *we-dhro‑. weather , from Old English weder, weather, storm, wind, from Germanic *wedram wind, weather.
Suffixed (participial) form *wē-nt-o‑, blowing.
1. 1. wind ¹, from Old English wind, wind;
  2. window , from Old Norse vindr, wind. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *windaz.
2. vent ¹, ventail , ventilate ; aventail , from Latin ventus, wind.
wing , from Middle English wenge, wing, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse vængr, wing, from suffixed Germanic form *wē-ingjaz.
Basic form *wē‑. nirvana , from Sanskrit vāti (stem *vā‑), it blows.

||[Pokorny 10. au̯(e)‑ 81.]

r552_ ‌ ‌ webh-
To weave, also to move quickly.
Derivatives include web , weevil , and wobble.

weave , woof ¹, from Old English wefan, to weave, from Germanic *weban.
weft , from Old English wefta, weft, cross thread, from Germanic *wefta‑.
Suffixed o-grade form *wobh-yo‑. web , webster , from Old English web(b), web, from Germanic *wabjam, fabric, web.
weevil , from Old English wifel, weevil (< "that which moves briskly"), from suffixed Germanic form *webila‑.
1. 1. gaufrette , goffer , from Old French gaufre, honeycomb, waffle;
  2. wafer , from Old North French waufre, wafer. Both (i) and (ii) from a source akin to Middle Low German wāfel, honeycomb.
2. waffle ¹, from Middle Dutch wāfel, waffle. Both a and b from suffixed Germanic form *wabila‑, web, honeycomb.
Possibly Germanic *wab‑, to move back and forth as in weaving.
1. wave , from Old English wafian, to move (the hand) up and down;
2. waver , from Middle English waveren, to waver;
3. wobble , from Low German wabbeln, to move from side to side, sway.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ubh-ā‑. hypha , from Greek huphē, web.

||[Pokorny u̯ebh‑ 1114.]

r553_ ‌ ‌ wed-¹
Water; wet.
Derivatives include water , hydrant , redundant , otter , and vodka.

Suffixed o-grade form *wod-ōr.
1. water , from Old English wæter, water;
2. kirschwasser , from Old High German wassar, water. Both a and b from Germanic *watar.
Suffixed lengthened-grade form *wēd-o‑. wet , from Old English wǣt, wēt, wet, from Germanic *wēd‑.
O-grade form *wod‑. wash , from Old English wæscan, wacsan, to wash, from Germanic suffixed form *wat-skan, to wash.
Nasalized form *we-n-d‑. winter , from Old English winter, winter, from Germanic *wintruz, winter, "wet season.".
Suffixed zero-grade form *ud-ōr. hydrant , hydria , hydro- , hydrous , utricle ¹; anhydrous , clepsydra , dropsy , hydathode , hydatid , from Greek hudōr, water.
Suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *u-n-d-ā‑. undine , undulate ; abound , inundate , redound , redundant , surround , from Latin unda, wave.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ud-ro‑, *ud-rā‑, water animal.
1. otter , from Old English otor, otter, from Germanic *otraz, otter;
2. nutria , from Latin lutra, otter (with obscure l‑);
3. Hydrus , from Greek hudros, a water snake;
4. Hydra , hydrilla ; hydrozoan , from Greek hudrā, a water serpent, Hydra.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ud-skio‑. usquebaugh , whiskey , from Old Irish uisce, water.
Suffixed o-grade form *wod-ā‑. vodka , from Russian voda, water.

||[Pokorny 9. au̯(e)‑ 78.]

r554_ ‌ ‌ wed-²
To speak. Oldest form *h₂wed‑.

Possible reduplicated form *əwe-ud‑ becoming *awe-ud‑, dissimilated to *aweid‑, with suffixed o-grade form *awoid-o‑, becoming Greek aweid‑, to sing (but more likely from a separate root *ə₂weid‑) ode ; comedy , epode , hymnody , melody , monody , parody , rhapsody , tragedy , from Greek aeidein (Attic āidein), to sing, and aoidē (Attic ōidē), song, ode, with aoidos (Attic ōidos), a singer, singing.
Suffixed o-grade form *wod-o‑. Theravada , from Sanskrit vādaḥ, sound, statement.

||[Pokorny 6. au‑ 76.]

r555_ ‌ ‌ weg-
To be strong, be lively. Oldest form *weg̑‑, becoming *weg‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include watch , vigilante , reveille , and velocity.

Suffixed o-grade form *wog-ē‑. wake ¹, from Old English wacan, to wake up, arise, and wacian, to be awake, from Germanic *wakēn.
Suffixed o-grade form *wog-no‑. waken , from Old English wæcnan, wæcnian, to awake, from Germanic *waknan.
watch , from Old English wæccan, to be awake, from Germanic *wakjan.
Suffixed form *weg-yo‑. Wicca , wicked , witch ; bewitch , from Old English wicca, sorcerer, wizard (feminine wicce, witch), from Germanic *wikkjaz, necromancer (< "one who wakes the dead").
bivouac , from Old High German wahta, watch, vigil, from Germanic *wahtwō.
1. wait , from Old North French waitier, to watch;
2. waft , from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German wachten, to watch, guard. Both a and b from Germanic *waht‑.
Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *wog-eyo‑. vegetable , from Latin vegēre, to be lively.
Suffixed (stative) form *weg-ē‑. vigor ; ravigote , from Latin vigēre, to be lively.
Suffixed form *weg-(e)li‑. vedette , vigil , vigilant , vigilante ; reveille , surveillant , from Latin vigil, watchful, awake.
Suffixed form *weg-slo‑. velocity , from Latin vēlōx, fast, "lively.".

||[Pokorny u̯eg̑‑ 1117.]

r556_ ‌ ‌ wegh-
To go, transport in a vehicle. Oldest form *weg̑h‑, becoming *wegh‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include weight , away , wagon , earwig , devious , trivial , and vex.

weigh ¹, from Old English wegan, to carry, balance in a scale, from Germanic *wegan.
wee ¹, from Old English wǣg(e), weight, unit of weight, from Germanic lengthened-grade form *wēgō.
Suffixed form *wegh-ti‑. weight , from Old English wiht, gewiht, weight, from Germanic *wihti‑.
1. way ; always , away , from Old English weg, way;
2. Norwegian , from Old Norse vegr, way;
3. thalweg , from Old High German weg, way. a-c all from Germanic *wegaz, course of travel, way.
Suffixed o-grade form *wogh-no‑.
1. wain , from Old English wæ(g)n, wagon;
2. wagon , from Middle Dutch wagen, wagon. Both a and b from Germanic *wagnaz.
Suffixed o-grade form *wogh-lo‑.
1. walleyed , from Old Norse vagl, chicken roost, perch, beam, eye disease, from Germanic *waglaz;
2. ochlocracy , ochlophobia , from Greek okhlos, populace, mob (< "moving mass").
Distantly related to this root are:
1. 1. graywacke , from Old High German waggo, wacko, boulder rolling on a riverbed, from Germanic *wag‑, "to move about";
  2. wag ¹, from Middle English waggen, to wag, possibly from Germanic *wag‑.
2. 1. earwig , from Old English wicga, insect (< "thing that moves quickly");
  2. wiggle , from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German wiggelen, to move back and forth, wag. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wig‑.
Basic form *wegh‑. vector , vehement , vehicle ; advection , convection , evection , invective , inveigh , from Latin vehere (past participle vectus), to carry.
Suffixed basic form *wegh-yā‑. foy , via , viatical , voyage ; convey , convoy , deviate , devious , envoy ¹, envoy ², invoice , obviate , obvious , ogee , ogive , pervious , previous , trivial , trivium , viaduct , from Latin via, way, road.
Suffixed form *wegh-s‑. vex , from Latin vexāre, to agitate (< "to set in motion").
Probably suffixed form *wegh-so‑. convex , from Latin convexus, "carried or drawn together (to a point)," convex (com‑, together; see kom ).

||[Pokorny u̯eg̑h‑ 1118.]

r557_ ‌ ‌ wei-
Also weiə-.
To turn, twist; with derivatives referring to suppleness or binding. (earlier *weiə₁‑).
Derivatives include wire , vise , and iris.

Form *wei‑.
1. 1. wire , from Old English wīr, wire;
  2. garland , from Old French garlande, wreath, from Frankish *wiara, *weara, wire. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *wī-ra‑, *wē-ra‑.
2. Probably suffixed Germanic form *wai-ra‑. seaware , from Old English wār, seaweed.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-riā‑. ferrule , from Latin viriae, bracelets (of Celtic origin).
4. Suffixed form *wei-ti‑. withy , from Old English wīthig, willow, withy, from Germanic *wīth‑, willow.
5. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-t‑. withe , from Old English withthe, supple twig, from Germanic *withjōn‑.
Form *weiə‑, zero-grade *wī‑ (< *wiə‑).
1. Suffixed form *wī-ti‑. vise ; viticulture , from Latin vītis, vine.
2. Suffixed form *wī-tā‑ becoming *wittā‑. vitta , from Latin vitta, headband.
3. Suffixed form *wī-men‑. Mimbres , from Latin vīmen, withy, wicker.
4. Probably suffixed form *wī-ri‑. iridaceous , irido- , iris , Iris ; iridium , iritis , from Greek īris, rainbow, and Īris, rainbow goddess.
5. Perhaps suffixed form *wī-n‑. inion ; exine , inosine , inositol , inotropic , from Greek īs, sinew.

||[Pokorny 1. u̯ei‑ 1120.]

r558_ ‌ ‌ weid-
To see.
Derivatives include guide , wisdom , kaleidoscope , Hades , unwitting , envy , idea , history , and penguin.

Full-grade form *weid‑.
1. 1. twit , from Old English wītan, to reproach;
  2. guide , guidon , from Old Provençal guidar, to guide;
  3. guy ¹, from Old French guier, to guide;
  4. wite , from Old English wīte, fine, penalty, from Germanic derivative noun *wīti‑. a-d all from Germanic *wītan, to look after, guard, ascribe to, reproach.
2. Suffixed form *weid-to‑.
  1. wise ¹, from Old English wīs, wise;
  2. wisdom , from Old English wīsdōm, learning, wisdom (-dōm, abstract suffix; see dhē- );
  3. wiseacre , from Old High German wīzag, knowledgeable;
  4. 1. wise ², from Old English wīse, wīs, manner;
    2. guise , from Old French guise, manner. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wīssōn‑, appearance, form, manner. a-d all from Germanic *wīssaz.
3. Suffixed form *weid-es‑. eidetic , eidolon , idol , idyll , -oid ; idocrase , kaleidoscope , from Greek eidos, form, shape.
Zero-grade form *wid‑.
1. 1. wit ¹, from Old English wit, witt, knowledge, intelligence;
  2. witenagemot , from Old English wita, wise man, councilor. Both a and b from Germanic *wit‑.
2. wit ², wot ; unwitting , from Old English witan, to know, from Germanic *witan (Old English first and third person singular wāt, from Germanic *wait, from Indo-European o-grade form *woid‑).
3. Suffixed form *wid-to‑. iwis , from Old English gewis, gewiss, certain, sure, from Germanic *(ga)wissa‑, known (*ga‑, past participial prefix; see kom ).
4. Form *wid-ē‑ (with the participial form *weid-to‑) vide , view , visa , visage , vision , visit , visor , vista , voyeur ; advice , advise , belvedere , black-a-vised , déjà vu , clairvoyant , envy , evident , improvise , interview , invidious , previse , provide , prudent , purvey , purview , review , revise , supervise , survey , from Latin vidēre, to see, look.
5. Suffixed form *wid-es-yā‑. idea , ideo- , from Greek ideā, appearance, form, idea.
6. Suffixed form *wid-tor‑. history , story ¹; polyhistor , from Greek histōr, wise, learned, learned man.
7. hadal , Hades , from Greek Haidēs (also Aïdēs), the underworld, perhaps "the invisible" and from *wid‑.
8. Suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *wi-n-d-o‑.
  1. colcannon , from Old Irish find, white (< "clearly visible");
  2. penguin , from Welsh gwyn, gwynn, white.
9. Celtic *wid‑, seer, in compound *dru-wid‑ (see deru- ).
Suffixed o-grade form *woid-o‑. Veda ; Rig-Veda , from Sanskrit vedaḥ, knowledge.

||[Pokorny 2. u̯(e)di‑ (misprint for u̯(e)id‑) 1125.]

r559_ ‌ ‌ weiə-
To go after someting, pursue with vigor, desire, with noun forms meaning force, power. Oldest form *wih_{x_-}. Related to wī-ro- .

Zero-grade form *wī‑ (< *wiə‑). vim , violate , violent , from Latin vīs, force, with irregular derivatives violāre, to treat with force, and violentus, vehement.
Suffixed o-grade form *woi(ə)-tyā‑. gain ¹; rowen , from Old French, gaaignier, gaignier, to obtain, from Germanic *waithanjan, to hunt, plunder, denominative verb from *wai-thjō, "pursuit," hunting.
Suffixed zero-grade form *wiə-to‑ becoming *wī-to‑. invite , from Latin invītāre, to invite (in‑, in; see en ).

||[Pokorny 3. u̯ei‑ 1123.]

r560_ ‌ ‌ weik-¹
Clan (social unit above the household). Oldest form *weik̑‑, becoming *weik‑ in centum languages.

Suffixed form *weik-slā‑. villa , village , villain , villanelle , villein ; bidonville , nasty , from Latin vīlla, country house, farm.
Suffixed o-grade form *woik-o‑.
1. vicinage , vicinity ; bailiwick , from Latin vīcus, quarter or district of a town, neighborhood;
2. androecium , autoecious , diocese , dioecious , ecesis , ecology , economy , ecumenical , heteroecious , monoecious , parish , parochial , from Greek oikos, house, and its derivatives oikiā, a dwelling, and oikēsis, dwelling, administration.
Zero-grade form *wik‑. Vaisya , from Sanskrit viśaḥ, dwelling, house.

||[Pokorny u̯eik̑‑ 1131.]

r561_ ‌ ‌ weik-²
Also weig-.
To bend, wind.
Derivatives include wicker , weak , and vicarious.

Form *weig‑.
1. 1. wych elm , from Old English wice, wych elm (having pliant branches);
  2. wicker , from Middle English wiker, wicker, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish viker, willow twig, wand;
  3. wicket , from Old North French wiket, wicket (< "door that turns"), from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse vikja, to bend, turn. a-c all from Germanic *wik‑.
2. 1. weak , from Old Norse veikr, pliant;
  2. weakfish , from Middle Dutch weec, weak, soft. Both a and b from Germanic *waikwaz.
3. week , from Old English wicu, wice, week, from Germanic *wikōn‑, "a turning," series.
Form *weik‑. Zero-grade form *wik‑.
1. vicar , vicarious , vice- ; vicissitude , from Latin *vix (genitive vicis), turn, situation, change;
2. vetch , from Latin vicia, vetch (< "twining plant").

||[Pokorny 4. u̯eik‑ 1130.]

r562_ ‌ ‌ weik-³
To fight, conquer.

wight ², from Old Norse vīgr, able in battle, from Germanic *wīk‑.
Nasalized zero-grade form *wi-n-k‑. vanquish , victor , vincible ; convict , convince , evict , evince , from Latin vincere, to conquer.
Zero-grade form *wik‑. Ordovician , from Celtic Ordovices (*ordo-wik‑), "those who fight with hammers" (*ordo‑, hammer).

||[Pokorny 2. u̯eik‑ 1128.]

r563_ ‌ ‌ weip-
To turn, vacillate, tremble ecstatically.
Derivatives include wipe , whip , and vibrate.

O-grade form *woip‑. waif ¹, waif ², waive , waiver , from Anglo-Norman waif, ownerless property, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse veif, waving thing, flag, from Germanic *waif‑.
Variant form *weib‑.
1. wipe , from Old English wīpian, to wipe;
2. guipure , from Old French guiper, to cover with silk;
3. whip , from Middle English wippen, to whip. a-c all from Germanic *wīpjan, to move back and forth.
Perhaps suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *wi-m-p-ila‑.
1. wimple , from Old English wimpel, covering for the neck (< "something that winds around");
2. gimp ¹, guimpe , from Old High German wimpal, guimpe;
3. perhaps Middle Dutch wimmel, auger (< "that which turns in boring") wimble .
Suffixed zero-grade variant form *wib-ro‑. vibrate , from Latin vibrāre, to vibrate.

||[Pokorny u̯eip‑ 1131.]

r564_ ‌ ‌ wekti-
Thing, creature.

whit , wight ¹; aught ², naught , not , from Old English wiht, person, thing;
nix ², from Old High German wiht, thing, being. Both a and b from Germanic *wihti‑.

||[Pokorny u̯ek-ti‑ 1136.]

r565_ ‌ ‌ wek^w-
To speak.

O-grade form *wō̆k^w‑.
1. vocal , voice , vowel , from Latin vōx, voice;
2. Calliope , from Greek ops, voice.
Suffixed o-grade form *wok^w-ā‑. vocable , vocation , vouch ; advocate , avocation , convoke , equivocal , evoke , invoke , provoke , revoke , univocal , from Latin vocāre, to call.
Suffixed form *wek^w-es‑. epic , epos ; epopee , orthoepy , from Greek epos, song, word.

||[Pokorny u̯ek^u̯‑ 1135.]

r566_ ‌ ‌ wel-¹
To wish, will.
Derivatives include wealth , gallop , gallant , and voluptuous.

well ², from Old English wel, well (< "according to one's wish"), from Germanic *wel‑.
weal ¹, wealth , from Old English wela, weola, well-being, riches, from Germanic *welōn‑.
will ¹, from Old English willa, desire, will power, from Germanic *wiljōn‑.
will ²; nill , willy-nilly , from Old English willan, to desire, from Germanic *wil(l)jan.
Germanic compound *wil-kumōn‑ (see g^wā- ).
O-grade form *wol‑.
1. gallop , from Old French galoper, to gallop;
2. wallop , from Old North French *waloper, to gallop;
3. gallant ; gallimaufry , from Old French galer, to rejoice, from Frankish Latin *walāre, to take it easy, from Frankish *wala, good, well. a-c all from Germanic *wal‑.
Basic form *wel‑. velleity , volition , voluntary ; benevolent , malevolence , from Latin velle (present stem vol‑), to wish, will.
Probably suffixed extended form *wel-p-i‑. voluptuary , voluptuous , from Latin voluptās, pleasure, from an adjective *volupis, pleasing (probably preserved in the adverb volup, with pleasure, from neuter *volupe).

||[Pokorny 2. u̯el‑ 1137.]

r567_ ‌ ‌ wel-²
To turn, roll; with derivatives referring to curved, enclosing objects.
Derivatives include waltz , willow , wallow , revolve , valley , and helix.

1. waltz , from Old High German walzan, to roll, waltz;
2. welter , from Middle Low German or Middle Dutch welteren, to roll. Both a and b from Germanic *walt‑.
whelk ¹, from Old English weoluc, weoloc, mollusk (having a spiral shell), whelk, from Germanic *weluka‑.
Perhaps Germanic *wel‑. willow , from Old English welig, willow (with flexible twigs).
Perhaps Germanic *welk‑. walk , from Old English wealcan, to roll, toss, and wealcian, to muffle up.
O-grade form *wol‑.
1. well ¹, from Old English wiella, wælla, welle, a well (< "rolling or bubbling water," "spring");
2. gaberdine , from Old High German wallōn, to roam;
3. wallet , possibly from Old North French *walet, roll, knapsack. a-c all from Germanic *wall‑.
Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *wol-ā‑.
1. wale , from Old English walu, streak on the skin, weal, welt;
2. Old High German *-walu, a roll, round stem, in compound *wurzwalu (see wrād- ). Both a and b from Germanic *walō.
Extended form *welw‑.
1. wallow , from Old English wealwian, to roll (in mud), from Germanic *walwōn;
2. vault ¹, vault ², volt ², voluble , volume , volute , volutin , volvox , voussoir ; archivolt , circumvolve , convolve , devolve , evolve , involucrum , involve , multivoltine , revolve , from Latin volvere, to roll;
3. suffixed o-grade form *wolw-ā‑. volva , vulva , from Latin vulva, volva, covering, womb;
4. suffixed zero-grade form *wl̥w-ā‑. valve , valvule , from Latin valva, leaf of a door (< "that which turns");
5. suffixed form *welu-tro‑. elytron , from Greek elutron, sheath, cover.
Suffixed form wel-n‑. ileus ; neurilemma , from Greek eilein (< *welnein), to turn, squeeze.
Perhaps variant *wall‑. vail , vale ¹, valley , vlei , from Latin vallēs, vallis, valley (< "that which is surrounded by hills").
Possibly suffixed form *wel-enā‑. Helen ; elecampane , inulin , from the Greek name Helenē (oldest form Welenā), Helen.
Suffixed form *wel-ik‑. helicon , helix ; helicopter , from Greek helix, spiral object.
Suffixed form *wel-mi-nth‑. helminth ; anthelmintic , aschelminth , platyhelminth , from Greek helmis, helmins (stem helminth‑), parasitic worm.

||[Pokorny 7. u̯el‑ 1140.]

r568_ ‌ ‌ welə-
To strike, wound. Oldest form *welh₂‑.

Suffixed o-grade form *wol(ə)-o‑.
1. Valhalla , from Old Norse Valhöll, Valhalla;
2. Valkyrie , from Old Norse Valkyrja, "chooser of the slain," name of one of the twelve war goddesses (-kyrja, chooser; see geus- ). Both a and b from Old Norse valr, the slain in battle, from Germanic *walaz.
Suffixed basic form *welə-nes‑. vulnerable , from Latin vulnus (stem vulner‑), a wound.
Suffixed zero-grade form *wl̥ə-to‑. berdache , from Old Iranian *varta‑ (Avestan varəta‑), seized, prisoner.

|| ||[Pokorny 8. u̯el‑ 1144.]

r569_ ‌ ‌ wemə-
To vomit. Oldest form *wemh₁‑.

wamble , from Middle English wam(e)len, to feel nausea, stagger, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse vamla, qualm, and Danish vamle, to become sick, from Germanic *wam‑.
vomit ; nux vomica , from Latin vomere, to vomit.
emesis , emetic , from Greek emein, to vomit.

||[Pokorny u̯em‑ 1146.]

r570_ ‌ ‌ wen-¹
To desire, strive for.
Derivatives include win , wont , wish , venerate , venereal , venom , and venison.

Suffixed form *wen-w‑. win , from Old English winnan, to win, from Germanic *winn(w)an, to seek to gain.
Suffixed zero-grade form *wn̥-yā‑. wynn , winsome , from Old English wynn, wen, pleasure, joy, from Germanic *wunjō.
Suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *wn̥-ē‑, to be contented. won ¹, wont , from Old English wunian, to become accustomed to, dwell, from Germanic *wunēn.
Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *won-eyo‑. wean , from Old English wenian, to accustom, train, wean, from Germanic *wanjan.
ween , from Old English wēnan, to expect, imagine, think, from Germanic denominative *wēnjan, to hope, from *wēniz, hope.
Suffixed zero-grade form *wn̥-sko‑. wish , from Old English wȳscan, to desire, wish, from Germanic *wunsk‑.
Perhaps o-grade form *won‑.
1. Vanir , from Old Norse Vanir, the Vanir;
2. vanadium , from Old Norse Vanadīs, name of the goddess Freya. Both a and b from Germanic *wana‑.
Suffixed form *wen-es‑.
1. venerate , venereal , venery ¹, Venus , from Latin venus, love;
2. suffixed form *wen-es-no‑. venom , from Latin venēnum, love potion, poison.
Possibly suffixed form *wen-eto‑, "beloved." Wend , from Old High German Winid, Wend, from Germanic *Weneda‑, a Slavic people.
Suffixed form *wen-yā‑. venial , from Latin venia, favor, forgiveness.
Lengthened-grade form *wēn-ā‑. venery ², venison , from Latin vēnārī, to hunt.
Possibly zero-grade suffixed form *wn̥-ig‑. banyan , from Sanskrit vaṇik, vāṇijaḥ, merchant (? < "seeking to gain").

||[Pokorny 1. u̯en‑ 1146.]

r571_ ‌ ‌ wen-²
To beat, wound.

Suffixed zero-grade form *wn̥-to‑. wound ¹, from Old English wund, a wound, from Germanic *wundaz.
Suffixed o-grade form *won-yo‑. wen ¹, from Old English wen(n), wæn(n), wen, from Germanic *wanja‑, a swelling.

||[Pokorny u̯en‑ 1108.]

r572_ ‌ ‌ wer-¹
To raise, lift, hold suspended. Oldest form *h₂wer‑.

Basic form *awer‑. aorta , arsis , arterio- , arteriole , artery ; meteor , from Greek āeirein, to raise, and artēriā, windpipe, artery.
Possibly from this root is Greek āēr, air (from an obscure basic form *āwer‑) aerial , aero- , air , aria ; malaria .
Zero-grade form *aur‑. aura , from Greek aurā, breath, vapor (related to Greek āēr, air; see 2 above).

||[Pokorny 1. u̯er‑ 1150.]

r573_ ‌ ‌ wer-²
Conventional base of various Indo-European roots; to turn, bend.
Derivatives include stalwart , weird , vertebra , wrath , wrong , wrestle , briar ¹, rhapsody , and worm.

Root *wert‑, to turn, wind.
1. Germanic *werth‑.
  1. 1. -ward , from Old English -weard, toward (< "turned toward");
    2. inward , from Old English inweard, inward, from Germanic *inwarth, inward (*in, in; see en ). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic variant *warth.
  2. perhaps Germanic derivative *werthaz, "toward, opposite," hence "equivalent, worth." worth ¹; stalwart , from Old English weorth, worth, valuable, and derivative noun weorth, wierth, value.
2. worth ², from Old English weorthan, to befall, from Germanic *werthan, to become (< "to turn into").
3. Zero-grade form *wr̥t‑. weird , from Old English wyrd, fate, destiny (< "that which befalls one"), from Germanic *wurthi‑.
4. versatile , verse ¹, version , versus , vertebra , vertex , vertigo , vortex ; adverse , anniversary , avert , bouleversement , controversy , converse ¹, convert , dextrorse , divert , evert , extrorse , extroversion , extrovert , introrse , introvert , invert , malversation , obvert , peevish , pervert , prose , retrorse , revert , sinistrorse , subvert , tergiversate , transverse , universe , from Latin vertere, to turn, with its frequentative versāre, to turn, and passive versārī, to stay, behave (< "to move around a place, frequent").
5. verst , from Russian versta, line, from Balto-Slavic *wirstā‑, a turn, bend.
Root *wreit‑, to turn.
1. wreath , from Old English writha, band (< "that which is wound around");
2. writhe , from Old English wrīthan, to twist, torture;
3. wrath , wroth , from Old English wrāth, angry (< "tormented, twisted"). a-c all from Germanic *wrīth‑, *wraith‑.
Root *wergh‑, to turn.
1. worry , from Old English wyrgan, to strangle, from Germanic *wurgjan.
2. Nasalized variant *wrengh‑.
  1. wring , from Old English wringan, to twist, from Germanic *wreng‑;
  2. 1. wrong , from Middle English wrong, wrong, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *vrangr, rangr, curved, crooked, wrong;
    2. wrangle , from Middle English wranglen, to wrangle, from a Low German source akin to wrangeln, to wrestle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *wrang‑.
Root *werg‑, to turn.
1. Nasalized variant form *wreng‑.
  1. wrench , from Old English wrencan, to twist;
  2. wrinkle , from Old English gewrinclian, to wind (ge‑, collective prefix; see kom ). Both a and b from Germanic *wrankjan.
2. verge ²; converge , diverge , from Latin vergere, to turn, tend toward.
Root *wreik‑, to turn.
1. 1. wry ; awry , from Old English wrīgian, to turn, bend, go;
  2. wriggle , from Middle Low German wriggeln, to wriggle. Both a and b from Germanic *wrīg‑.
2. 1. wrist , from Old English wrist, wrist;
  2. gaiter , from Old French guietre, gaiter, from Frankish *wrist‑. Both a and b from Germanic *wristiz, from *wrihst‑.
3. wrest , wrestle , from Old English wrǣstan, to twist, from secondary Germanic derivative *wraistjan.
4. Possibly from this root are European words for heather.
  1. hypericin ¹, brusque , from Greek ereikē, tree heath (exact preform uncertain);
  2. Possibly o-grade form *wroik‑. briar ¹, brusque , from Late Latin brūcus, heather, from Gaulish *brūko‑.
ribald , from Old High German rīban, to rub, copulate, from Germanic root *wrib‑.
Root *werb‑, also *werbh‑, to turn, bend.
1. warp , from Old English weorpan, to throw away, from Germanic *werp‑, *warp‑, "to fling by turning the arm.".
2. reverberate , from Latin verber, whip, rod.
3. verbena , vervain , from Latin verbēna, sacred foliage.
4. Zero-grade form *wr̥b‑. rhabdomancy , rhabdovirus , from Greek rhabdos, rod.
5. Nasalized variant form *wrembh‑. rhombus , from Greek rhombos, bullroarer, from rhembesthai, to roll about, go round and round.
Root *werp‑, to turn, wind.
1. Metathesized form *wrep‑. wrap , from Middle English wrappen, to wrap, from a source akin to Danish dialectal vravle, to wind, from Germanic *wrap‑.
2. Zero-grade form *wr̥p‑. raphe , raphide ; rhapsody ; staphylorrhaphy , tenorrhaphy , from Greek rhaptein, to sew.
Root *wr̥mi‑, worm; rhyme word to k^wr̥mi- .
1. worm , from Old English wyrm, worm, from Germanic *wurmiz.
2. vermeil , vermi- , vermicelli , vermicular , vermin , from Latin vermis, worm.

||[Pokorny 3. u̯er‑ 1152.]

r574_ ‌ ‌ wer-³
To perceive, watch out for.
Derivatives include wary , lord , reward , guard , and panorama.

O-grade form *wor‑.
1. Suffixed form *wor-o‑.
  1. wary , from Old English wær, watchful;
  2. aware , from Old English gewær, aware (ge‑, collective and intensive prefix; see kom );
  3. ware ², from Old English warian, to beware. a-c all from Germanic *waraz.
2. Suffixed form wor-to‑.
  1. 1. ward ; lord , steward , from Old English weard, a watching, keeper;
    2. warder ², from Old English weardian, to ward, guard.
  2. warden ; award , reward , wardrobe , from Old North French warder, to guard;
  3. guard ; garderobe , regard , from Old French guarder, to guard;
  4. rearward ², from Anglo-Norman warde, guard. a-d all from Germanic *wardaz, guard, and *wardōn, to guard.
3. ware ¹, from Old English waru, goods, protection, guard, from Germanic *warō.
4. Suffixed form *wor-wo‑. Arcturus , pylorus , from Greek ouros, a guard.
5. Probably variant *(s)wor‑, *s(w)or‑. ephor , panorama , from Greek horān, to see.
Suffixed (stative) form *wer-ē‑. revere ¹, from Latin verērī, to respect, feel awe for.

||[Pokorny 8. u̯er‑ 1164.]

r575_ ‌ ‌ wer-⁴
To cover.
Derivatives include overt , cover , warranty , garage , garrison , and garnish.

Basic form *wer‑.
1. weir , from Old English wer, dam, fish trap, from Germanic *wer-jōn‑.
2. Compound form *ap-wer-yo‑ (*ap‑, off, away; see apo- ). aperient , apéritif , aperture ; overt , overture , pert , from Latin aperīre, to open, uncover.
3. Compound form *op-wer-yo‑ (*op‑, over; see epi ). cover , operculum ; kerchief , from Latin operīre, to cover.
4. Suffixed form *wer-tro‑. ambarella , wat , from Sanskrit vāṭaḥ, enclosure, from lengthened-grade derivative *vārt(r)a‑.
O-grade form *wor‑.
1. warn , from Old English *war(e)nian, to take heed, warn, from Germanic *war-nōn.
2. 1. 1. guaranty , from Old French garant, warrant, authorization;
    2. warrant , warrantee , warranty , from Old North French warant, warrant, and warantir, to guarantee.
  2. garage , from Old French garer, to guard, protect;
  3. garret , garrison , from Old French g(u)arir, to defend, protect;
  4. warren , from Old North French warenne, enclosure, game preserve;
  5. garment , garnish , garniture , from Old French g(u)arnir, to equip. a-e all from Germanic *war‑.
3. Suffixed form *wor-o‑.
  1. Germanic *warōn‑, protector, in compound *burg-warōn‑ (see bhergh- ²);
  2. salwar , from Old Iranian compound *šara-vāra‑, thigh-covering (*šara‑, thigh);
  3. barbican , from Old Iranian compound *pari-vāraka‑, protective (*pari‑, around; see per ¹).

||[Pokorny 5. u̯er‑ 1160.]

r576_ ‌ ‌ wer-⁵
Also werə-.
To speak. Oldest form *werh₁‑, with variant *wreh₁‑, becoming *wrē‑.

Suffixed zero-grade form *wr̥-dho‑. word , from Old English word, word, from Germanic *wurdam.
Suffixed form *wer-dho‑. verb , verve ; adverb , proverb , from Latin verbum, word.
Suffixed form *wer-yo‑. irony , from Greek eirein, to say, speak.
Variant form *wrē‑.
1. Suffixed form *wrē-tor‑. rhetor , from Greek rhētōr, public speaker;
2. suffixed form *wrē-mn̥. rheme , from Greek rhēma, word.

||[Pokorny 6. u̯er‑ 1162.]

r577_ ‌ ‌ wē-r-
Water, liquid, milk. Contracted from *weə₁-r‑; zero-grade *uə₁-r‑, contracted to *ūr‑. Related to euə-dh-r̥ .

: Suffixed zero-grade form *ūr-īnā‑. urine , from Latin ūrīna, urine.

|| ||[Pokorny 9. au̯(e)‑ 78.]

r578_ ‌ ‌ wērə-o-
True, trustworthy. Oldest form *wērə₁-o‑.
Derivatives include warlock , and verdict.

warlock , from Old English wǣr, faith, pledge, from Germanic *wēra‑.
veracious , verism , verity , very ; aver , verdict , veridical , verify , verisimilar , voir dire , from Latin vērus, true.

||[Pokorny 11. u̯er‑ 1165.]

r579_ ‌ ‌ werg-
To do. Oldest form *werg̑‑, becoming *werg‑ in centum languages.
Derivatives include work , allergy , surgery , wrought , and orgy.

Suffixed form *werg-o‑.
1. 1. work ; handiwork , from Old English weorc, werc, work;
  2. boulevard , bulwark , from Old High German werc, work. Both a and b from Germanic *werkam, work.
2. erg ¹, ergative , -urgy ; adrenergic , allergy , argon , cholinergic , demiurge , dramaturge , endergonic , endoergic , energy , ergograph , ergometer , ergonomics , exergonic , exergue , exoergic , georgic , hypergolic , lethargy , liturgy , metallurgy , surgery , synergid , synergism , thaumaturge , from Greek ergon, work, action.
Zero-grade form *wr̥g‑.
1. Suffixed forms *wr̥g-yo‑, *wr̥g-to‑.
  1. wrought , from Old English wyrcan, to work;
  2. irk , from Old Norse yrkja, to work. Both a and b from Germanic *wurkjan, to work, participle *wurhta‑.
2. Suffixed form *wr̥g-t‑. wright , from Old English wryhta, maker, wright, from Germanic *wurhtjō‑.
O-grade form *worg‑.
1. organ , organon , from Greek organon (with suffix -ano‑), tool;
2. orgy , from Greek orgia, secret rites, worship (< "service").

||[Pokorny 2. u̯erg̑‑ 1168.]

r580_ ‌ ‌ wers-
To confuse, mix up. Compare ers- .

Suffixed basic form.
1. 1. war , from Old North French werre, war;
  2. guerrilla , from Spanish guerra, war. Both a and b from Germanic *werra‑, from *werz-a‑.
2. worse , from Old English wyrsa, worse, from Germanic comparative *wers-izōn‑.
3. worst , from Old English wyrsta, worst, from Germanic superlative *wers-istaz.
Suffixed zero-grade form *wr̥s-ti‑. wurst ; liverwurst , from Old High German wurst, sausage (< "mixture"), from Germanic *wursti‑.

||[Pokorny u̯ers‑ 1169.]

r581_ ‌ ‌ wes-¹
To live, dwell, pass the night, with derivatives meaning "to be." Oldest form *h₂wes‑.

O-grade (perfect tense) form *wos‑. was , from Old English wæs, was, from Germanic *was‑.
Lengthened-grade form *wēs‑. were , from Old English wǣre (subjunctive), wǣron (plural), were, from Germanic *wēz‑.
wassail , from Old Norse vesa, vera, to be, from Germanic *wesan.
Perhaps suffixed form *wes-tā‑. Vesta , from Latin Vesta, household goddess.
Possibly suffixed variant form *was-tu‑. astute , from Latin astus, skill, craft (practiced in a town), from Greek astu, town (< "place where one dwells").
Suffixed form *wes-eno‑. divan , from Old Persian vahanam, house.

||[Pokorny 1. u̯es‑ 1170.]

r582_ ‌ ‌ wes-²
To clothe. Extension of eu- ¹.

Suffixed o-grade (causative) form *wos-eyo‑. wear , from Old English werian, to wear, carry, from Germanic *wazjan.
Suffixed form *wes-ti‑. vest ; devest , invest , revet , travesty , from Latin vestis, garment.
Suffixed form *wes-nu‑. himation , from Greek hennunai, to clothe, with nominal derivative heima, hīma (< *wes-mn̥), garment.

||[Pokorny 5. u̯es‑ 1172.]

r583_ ‌ ‌ wes-³
To buy.

Suffixed form *wes-no‑. venal , vend , from Latin vēnum, sale.
Suffixed o-grade form *wos-no‑. duopsony , monopsony , from Greek ōneisthai, to buy.
Suffixed form *wes-ā‑. bazaar , from Persian bāzār, from Old Iranian *vahā-carana‑, "sale-traffic.".
Perhaps suffixed form *wes-li‑. vile ; revile , vilify , vilipend , from Latin vīlis, cheap, base.

||[Pokorny 8. u̯es‑ 1173.]

r584_ ‌ ‌ wes-pero-
Evening, night.

Reduced form *wes‑.
1. Suffixed form *wes-to‑.
  1. west , from Old English west, west;
  2. western , from Old English westerne, western;
  3. westerly , from Old English westra, more westerly. a-c all from Germanic *west‑.
2. Possibly Germanic *wis‑, west, in Late Latin Visigothī, "West Goths" (Gothī, the Goths) Visigoth .
Basic form *wespero‑.
1. pipistrelle , vesper , vespertilionid , from Latin vesper, evening.
2. Hesperian , Hesperides , Hesperus , from Greek hesperos, evening.

||[Pokorny u̯esperos 1173.]

r585_ ‌ ‌ wesr̥
Spring.

: vernal ; primavera ¹, from Latin vēr, spring (phonologically irregular).

||[Pokorny u̯es-r̥ 1174.]

r586_ ‌ ‌ wet-¹
To blow, inspire, spiritually arouse. Related to wē- . Oldest form *h₂wet‑
Derivatives include Wednesday , and atmosphere.

Lengthened-grade form *wōt‑.
1. Woden ; Wednesday , from Old English Wōden, Woden;
2. Odin , from Old Norse ōdhinn, Odin;
3. Wotan , from Old High German Wuotan. a-c all from Germanic suffixed form *wōd-eno‑, *wōd-ono‑, "raging," "mad," "inspired," hence "spirit," name of the chief Teutonic god *Wōd-enaz;
4. wood ², from Old English wōd, mad, insane, from Germanic *wōdaz;
5. Celtic *wāt‑. vatic , from Latin vātēs, prophet, poet, from a Celtic source akin to Old Irish fáith, seer.
O-grade form *wot‑. wedeln , from Old High German wedil, fan, from Germanic suffixed form *wath-ila‑.
Suffixed variant form *wat-no‑. fan ¹, van ³, from Latin vannus, a winnowing fan.
Oldest basic form *əwet‑ becoming *awet‑ in suffixed form *awet-mo‑. atmosphere , from Greek atmos (< *aetmos), breath, vapor.

||[Pokorny 1. u̯āt‑ 1113.]

r587_ ‌ ‌ wet-²
Year.

Suffixed form *wet-ru‑. wether ; bellwether , from Old English wether, wether, from Germanic *wethruz, perhaps "yearling.".
Suffixed form *wet-es‑.
1. veteran ; inveterate , from Latin vetus, old (< "having many years");
2. veterinary , from Latin veterīnus, of beasts of burden, of cattle (perhaps chiefly old cattle);
3. etesian , from Greek etos, year.
Suffixed form *wet-olo‑. veal , vitellus , from Latin vitulus, calf, yearling.

||[Pokorny u̯et‑ 1175.]

r588_ ‌ ‌ wi-
Apart, in half.

Suffixed form *wi-ito‑. wide , from Old English wīd, wide (< "far apart"), from Germanic *wīdaz.
Suffixed (comparative) form *wi-tero‑.
1. with , withers , from Old English wither, against, with its derivative with, with, against;
2. guerdon ; widdershins , from Old High German widar, against. Both a and b from Germanic *withrō, against.

||[Pokorny 1. u̯ī̆‑ 1175.]

r589_ ‌ ‌ wī-ro-
Man. Oldest form *wih_x-ro‑, derivative of weiə- .
Derivatives include werewolf , world , and virtuoso.

1. werewolf , wergeld , from Old English wer, man;
2. 1. world , from Old English weorold, world;
  2. Weltanschauung , Weltschmerz , from Old High German weralt, world. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *wer-ald‑, "life or age of man" (*-ald‑, age; see al- ²).
3. loup-garou , from Old French garoul, werewolf, from Frankish *wer-wulf, "man-wolf" (*wulf, wolf; see wl̥k^wo- ). Both a and b from Germanic *weraz, from shortened form *wiraz.
virago , virile , virtue , virtuosa , virtuoso ; decemvir , decurion , duumvir , triumvir , from Latin vir, man.
curia , from Latin cūria, curia, court, possibly from *co-vir-ia, "men together" (*co‑, together; see kom ).

||[Pokorny u̯ī̆ro-s 1177.]

r590_ ‌ ‌ wīkm̥tī-
Twenty. Compound of wi- , in half, hence two, and *(d)km̥t-ī (nominative dual), decade, reduced zero-grade form of dekm̥ . Oldest form *wīk̑m̥tī‑, becoming *wīkm̥tī‑ in centum languages.

vicenary , vigesimal , vigintillion , from Latin vīgintī, twenty.
eicosanoid , eicosapentaenoic acid , icosahedron , from Greek eikosi, twenty.
pachisi , from Sanskrit viṁśatiḥ, twenty.

||[Pokorny u̯ī-k̑m̥t-ī 1177.]

r591_ ‌ ‌ wl̥k^wo-
Wolf.

1. wolf , from Old English wulf, wolf;
2. aardwolf , from Middle Dutch wolf, wulf, wolf;
3. wolfram , from Old High German wolf, wolf;
4. Frankish *wulf, wolf, in compound *wer-wulf (see wī-ro- ). a-d all from Germanic *wulfaz.
Taboo variant *lupo‑. lobo , lupine ¹, lupine ², lupus , robalo ; loup-garou , from Latin lupus, wolf.
Taboo variant *luk^wo‑.
1. lycanthrope , lycopene , lycopodium , from Greek lukos, wolf;
2. suffixed form *luk^w-ya. lytta ; alyssum , from Greek lussa, martial rage, madness, rabies ("wolf-ness").

||[Pokorny u̯l̥k^u̯os 1178.]

r592_ ‌ ‌ wl̥p-ē-
Fox.

vulpine , from Latin vulpēs, fox.
Taboo variant *əlōpē̆k‑. alopecia , from Greek alōpēx, fox.

||[Pokorny u̯l̥p‑ 1179.]

r593_ ‌ ‌ wō̆s
You (plural).

: rendezvous , from Latin vōs, you.

|| ||[Pokorny 1. i̯u‑ 513.]

r594_ ‌ ‌ wrād-
Branch, root. Oldest form *wreh₂d‑, colored to *wrah₂d‑, becoming *wrād‑.
Derivatives include root ¹, wort , radish , and licorice.

Basic form *wrād‑. root ¹; rutabaga , from Old Norse rōt, root, from Germanic *wrōt‑.
Zero-grade form *wr̥əd‑.
1. 1. wort ¹, from Old English wyrt, plant, herb;
  2. Gewürztraminer , from Old High German wurz, plant, root;
  3. mangel-wurzel , from German Wurzel, root (< *wurzwala, rootstock; *-wala, a roll, round stem; see wel- ²). a-c all from Germanic *wurtiz.
2. Suffixed form *wr̥əd-yā‑. wort ², from Old English wyrt, brewer's wort, from Germanic *wurtjō‑.
3. radical , radicle , radish , radix ; deracinate , eradicate , irradicable , from Latin rādīx, root.
4. Suffixed form *wrəd-mo‑. ramose , ramus ; ramify , from Latin rāmus, branch.
5. Perhaps suffixed reduced form *wr̥(ə)d-ya. rhizo- , rhizome ; coleorhiza , licorice , mycorrhiza , from Greek rhiza, root.

||[Pokorny u̯(e)rād‑ 1167.]

r595_ ‌ ‌ yē-
To throw, impel. Contracted from *yeh₁‑.

Extended zero-grade forms *yak-yo‑ and *yak-ē‑ (stative) gisant , gist , gite , jactitation , jess , jet ², jeté , jetsam , jettison , jetty ¹, joist , jut ; abject , adjacent , adjective , amice , circumjacent , conjecture , deject , ease , ejaculate , eject , inject , interject , object , parget , project , reject , subjacent , subject , superjacent , traject , from Latin iacere, to throw, lay, and iacēre, to lie down (< "to be thrown") and iaculum, dart.
Basic form *yē‑ and zero-grade form *yə‑. catheter , diesis , enema , paresis , synesis , from Greek hīenai, to send, throw.

||[Pokorny i̯ē‑ 502.]

r596_ ‌ ‌ yeg-
Ice.

: icicle , from Old English gicel, icicle, ice, from Germanic *jakilaz, *jekilaz.

||[Pokorny i̯eg‑ 503.]

r597_ ‌ ‌ yek-
To speak. Suffixed o-grade form *yok-o‑.

: jewel , jocose , jocular , joke , juggle , juggler ; jeopardy , from Latin iocus, joke.

||[Pokorny i̯ek‑ 503.]

r598_ ‌ ‌ yē̆k^wr̥
Liver.

hepatic , hepato- ; heparin , hepatitis , from Greek hēpar, liver (stem hēpat‑ < *yēk^wn̥-t‑ < Indo-European oblique stem *yē̆k^wn‑).
gizzard , from an Iranian source akin to Persian jigar, liver.

||[Pokorny i̯ek^u̯-r̥(t‑) 504.]

r599_ ‌ ‌ yēr-
Year, season. Oldest form *yeh₁r‑, becoming *yē‑.

Suffixed basic form *yēr-o‑.
1. year , from Old English gēar, year;
2. Yahrzeit , from Old High German jār, year. Both a and b from Germanic *jēram, year.
Suffixed o-grade form *yōr-ā‑. horary , hour ; horologe , horology , horoscope , from Greek hōrā, season.

|| ||[Pokorny 1. ei‑ 293.]

r600_ ‌ ‌ yes-
To boil, foam, bubble.

yeast , from Old English gist, yeast, from Germanic *jest‑.
kieselguhr , from Old High German jësan, to ferment, and jerian, to cause to ferment, from Germanic *jes‑.
eczema , zeolite , from Greek zeein, zein, to boil.

||[Pokorny i̯es‑ 506.]

r601_ ‌ ‌ yeu-
Vital force, youthful vigor. Oldest form *h₂yeu‑; variant of aiw- . Suffixed zero-grade form *yuwen‑ (< *yu-əen‑), "possessing youthful vigor," young.

Further suffixed form *yuwn̥-ti‑. youth , from Old English geoguth, youth, from Germanic *jugunthi‑, *jugunthō.
Further suffixed form *yuwn̥-ko‑.
1. 1. young , from Old English geong, young;
  2. junker , from Old High German junc, young;
  3. younker , from Middle Dutch jonc, young. (i)-(iii) all from Germanic *jungaz, from *juwungaz.
2. gallowglass , from Old Irish óac, from Celtic *yowanko‑.
junior , June , Juno , juvenile ; rejuvenate , from Latin iuvenis, young.

||[Pokorny 3. i̯eu‑ 510.]

r602_ ‌ ‌ yeug-
To join.
Derivatives include yoke , jugular , adjust , junta , and yoga.

Zero-grade form *yug‑.
1. Suffixed form *yug-o‑.
  1. yoke , from Old English geoc, yoke, from Germanic *yukam;
  2. jugate , jugular , jugum ; conjugate , subjugate , from Latin iugum, yoke;
  3. zygo- , zygoma , zygote , -zygous ; azygos , syzygy , from Greek zugon, yoke, and zugoun, to join;
  4. Yuga , from Sanskrit yugam, yoke.
2. Suffixed (superlative) form *yug-isto‑. jostle , joust ; adjust , juxtapose , juxtaposition , from Latin iūxtā, close by, perhaps from *iugistā (viā), "on a nearby (road).".
3. Nasalized zero-grade form *yu-n-g‑. join , joinder , joint , jointure , junction , juncture , junta ; adjoin , conjoin , conjugal , conjunct , enjoin , injunction , rejoin ¹, rejoinder , subjoin , from Latin iungere, to join.
Suffixed form *yeug-mn̥. zeugma , from Greek zeugma, a bond.
Suffixed o-grade form *youg-o‑. yoga , from Sanskrit yogaḥ, union.

||[Pokorny 2. i̯eu‑ 508.]

r603_ ‌ ‌ yewes-
Law.

jural , jurist , jury ¹; abjure , adjure , conjure , injury , juridical , jurisconsult , jurisdiction , jurisprudence , nonjuror , objurgate , perjure , from Latin iūs (stem iūr‑), law, and its derivative iūrāre, "to pronounce a ritual formula," swear.
Compound form *yewes-dik‑ (see deik- ).
Suffixed from *yewes-to‑. just ¹, from Latin iūstus, just.

||[Pokorny i̯eu̯os‑ 512.]

r604_ ‌ ‌ yewo-
A grain, probably barley. Suffixed form *yew-ya.

: zein ; zeaxanthin , from Greek zeia, one-seeded wheat.

||[Pokorny i̯eu̯o‑ 512.]

r605_ ‌ ‌ yu-
You. Second person (plural) pronoun.

: ye ², you , from Old English gē and ēow, you, from Germanic *jūz (nominative) and *iwwiz (oblique).

||[Pokorny 1. i̯u‑ 513.]

Guide to the Indo-European Roots Appendix

This dictionary carries the etymology of the English language to its logical and natural conclusion, for if the documentary history of words is of interest and value, so is their reconstructed prehistory. The historical component is given in the etymologies, after the definitions in the main body of the dictionary. This appendix supplies the prehistoric component, tracing the ultimate Indo-European derivations of those English words that are descended from a selected group of Indo-European roots.

In the appendix, the form given in boldface type at the head of each entry is, unless otherwise identified, an Indo-European root in its basic form. The basic root form is followed in some cases by one or more variants, also in boldface type. Then the basic reconstructed meaning or meanings of the root are given. Meanings that are different parts of speech are separated by a semicolon:

kei-¹ To lie; bed, couch; beloved, dear.
pelə-² Flat; to spread.
leg- To collect; with derivatives meaning “to speak.”

After the basic meaning there may appear further information about the phonological shape or nature of the root:

skei- To cut, split. Extension of sek-.
kwr̥mi- Worm. Rhyme word to *wr̥mi‑, worm (see wer-²).
pā- To protect, feed. Oldest form *peh₂‑, colored to *pah₂‑, becoming *pā-.
[līk- Body, form; like, same. Germanic root.

Most, but not all, of the additional information is self-explanatory. In the first two examples, the boldface forms sek- and wer-² are cross-references to those roots, which are main entries in this appendix. Every boldface form appearing in the text of an entry is such a cross-reference. In the example pā- the forms *peh₂‑, *pah₂‑, and *pā- represent older root forms; the nature of these changes is explained in the essay with “Speech Sounds and Their Alternations” (see the print dictionary). The entries līk- and re- are not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since they are represented in only one branch of the family, but they are included, within boldface brackets, because of the number of English words among their descendants.

The text of each entry describes in detail the development of Modern English words from the root. Each numbered section of an entry begins with a list, in small capitals, of the Modern English words derived from a particular form of the root. (This list may be preceded by an intermediate step; see further below.) The simple (uncompounded) derivatives are given first; the compounds follow, separated from them by a semicolon. In some cases no further semantic or morphological development needs to be explained, and the lemma, the historically attested representative of the root, is given next, as avis at the entry awi-:

awi- Bird. I. 1.avian, aviary, aviation; aviculture, avifauna, bustard, ocarina, osprey, ostrich, from Latin avis, bird.

Much more commonly, however, intermediate developments require explanation. These intermediate stages are reconstructions representing a word stem in Indo-European that is necessary to explain the lemma following it (see the section “Grammatical Forms and Syntax” in the print dictionary). The reconstructed forms are not historically attested; they are preceded by an asterisk (*) to note this fact. Sometimes earlier or later developments of the intermediate forms are given in parentheses, as in the example of stā- below. In these cases the symbol < is used to mean “derived from” and the symbol > is used to mean “developed into.” Intermediate stages that are in fact attested (such as the stages between Latin avis and English bustard in the example above) are usually not given in the appendix, but in the etymology of the word in the main vocabulary of the dictionary. The following terms are used to describe typical morphological processes of Indo-European:

Full-grade form:

A form with e-vocalism (the basic form); so identified for descriptive contrast.

O-grade form:

A form with o-vocalism:

dhers- O-grade form *dhors- …

Zero-grade form:

A form with zero-vocalism:

men-¹ I. Zero-grade form *mn̥-.

Lengthened-grade form:

A form with lengthened vocalism:

ked- 1. Lengthened-grade form *kēd-.

Secondary full-grade form:

A new full-grade form created by inserting the fundamental vowel e in the zero-grade form of an extended root:

stā- … V. Zero-grade extended root *stū- (< *stuə‑).... VI. Secondary full-grade form *steuə-.

Basic form:

The unchanged root; so identified for descriptive contrast.

Suffixed form:

A form with one or more suffixes, written with an internal hyphen:

laks- Suffixed form *laks-o-.
maghu- Suffixed form *magho-ti-.
mel-² 1. Suffixed (comparative) form *mel-yos-.

Prefixed form:

A form with a prefix, written with an internal hyphen:

op- … 6. … from prefixed form *co-op- …

Extended form:

A form with an extension or enlargement, written without internal hyphens:

pel-⁵ … II. Extended form *pelh₂-.

Nasalized form:

A form with a nasal infix, written with internal hyphens:

tag- 1. Nasalized form *ta-n-g-.

Reduplicated form:

A form prefixed by its own initial consonant followed by a vowel:

segh- … 6. Reduplicated form *si-sgh-.

Expressive form:

A form with “expressive gemination” (doubling of the final consonant), written without internal hyphens:

gal- … 3. Expressive form *gall-.

Compound form:

A form compounded with a form of another root, written with internal hyphens:

dem- … 3. Compound form *dems-pot- …

Shortened form:

A form with shortened vocalism:

syū- … III. Suffixed shortened form *syu-men-.

Reduced form:

A form with loss of one or more sounds:

ambhi 1. Reduced form *bhi.

Oldest root form:

A root form showing a laryngeal (h1, h2, h3, hx, etc. ) in a position, typically at the beginning or end of a root, where it is preserved in only a few Indo-European languages, such as Greek or Hittite:

ster-³ Star. Oldest form *h₂ster-.

Variant form:

A form altered in any way other than those described in the above categories:

deru- … 2. Variant form *dreu-.

These terms can be combined freely to describe in as much detail as necessary the development from the root to the lemma.

dhē(i)- 1. Suffixed reduced form *dhē-mnā-. female, feme, feminine; effeminate, from Latin fēmina, woman (< “she who suckles”).
gerə-¹ 1. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *gērə-s-. ageratum, geriatrics, from Greek gēras, old age.
petə- … 2. Suffixed (stative) variant zero-grade form *pat-ē-. patent, patulous, from Latin patēre, to be open.

In order to emphasize the fact that English belongs to the Germanic branch of Indo-European and give precedence to directly inherited words in contrast to words borrowed from other branches, the intermediate stages in Germanic etymologies are covered in fuller detail. The Common or Proto-Germanic (here called simply Germanic) forms underlying English words are always given. Where no other considerations intervene, Germanic is given first of the Indo-European groups, and Old English is given first within Germanic, although this order of precedence is not rigidly applied.

The final item in most entries is an abbreviated reference, in brackets, to Julius Pokorny’s Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch [Indo-European Etymological Dictionary] (Bern, 1959). This, the standard work of reference and synthesis in the Indo-European field, carries a full range of the actual comparative material on which the roots are reconstructed. Our appendix presents only those aspects of the material that are directly relevant to English. For example, the English word many is found at the root menegh‑, “copious.” This entry describes the transition of the Indo-European form through Germanic *managa- to Old English manig, mænig, “many.” It does not cite the comparative evidence from outside English and Germanic on which this assertion is based, but it refers to “Pokorny men(e)gh- 730.” The entry men(e)gh- on page 730 in Pokorny’s dictionary cites, in addition to the Old English word, the forms attested in Sanskrit, Celtic, Gothic, Old High German, Old Norse, Slavic, and Lithuanian, from which the reconstruction of the root was made. These references should serve as a reminder that the information given in this appendix is assertive rather than expository and that the evidence and evaluation upon which its assertions are based are not presented here.

Symbols:

* unattested
< derived from
> developed into

Parentheses within a form enclose sound(s) or letter(s) sometimes or optionally present.